HistoriCity: Celestial bodies and India's contributions to ancient astronomy

Hindustan Times

5 hours ago

Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla walks in the footsteps of ancient geniuses like Aryabhata, who calculated the value of pi accurately. Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla walks in the footsteps of ancient geniuses like Aryabhata, who calculated the value of pi accurately. (ANI Video Grab)
The tantalising possibility of finding traces of life elsewhere in the universe has for a long time remained in human consciousness. In India, the first probes into astronomy began with questions such as those asked in the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa, written by Lagadha and said to be the earliest astronomical text in India, in which the author describes a lunisolar calendrical system. Similarly, the Rig Veda's Nasadiya Sukta—often described as the origin hymn—asks questions that continue to confound us. It asks: 'There was neither non-existence nor existence then; Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond; What stirred? Where? In whose protection?'
One can easily imagine the elite and intellectual class of ancient Indians trying to make sense of celestial phenomena like shooting stars, comets, thunder and lightning, and not least the eclipses, which continue to fascinate both the devout and the superstitious among us. The waning and waxing of the moon, and the rising and setting of the sun, which determined so much about pre-modern life, cannot be taken for granted either. These natural phenomena must have sparked the earliest inquiries.
It is only natural that the Rig Vedic questions were more fundamental than those asked by modern astronauts and scientists today. However, without modern equipment or scientific understanding, ancient Indians were able to identify various planets by their characteristic colours, observe constellations, and anthropomorphise them. All this was achieved by the time we entered the Common Era, i.e., around 2,000 years ago.
The lunar zodiac—or nakshatra—remains a constant in Indian astronomical texts from the Vedic period and continues to guide religious observances, including festivals and other auspicious dates associated with myriad rituals.
Aryabhata: India's Mathematical Genius
The Common Era marks the beginning of rapid astronomy development —not just in India, but across the world. Aryabhata introduced a diverse set of time units, such as yuga, kalpa, and manvantara. In his only surviving work, the Aryabhatiya, there is evidence of the concept of 'zero' or void, along with indeterminate equations (kuttaka) and principles of mensuration. The text also presents techniques to calculate planetary positions and introduces the concept of a seven-day week. He accurately calculated the value of pi as 3.1416—the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. Aryabhata, who lived in the early 6th century CE, laid the foundation for later scholars such as Brahmagupta and Varāhamihira to further advance Indian astronomy.
The Aryabhatiya was translated into Arabic in the 8th century, which eventually contributed to the development of algorithmic mathematics through the works of Al-Khwarizmi. By the time of Al-Biruni in the 11th century, it was well known among contemporary scientists across the world that Aryabhata had postulated that the Earth rotates on its axis. India's contribution to the modern numeral system is yet to be fully acknowledged. As James Evans wrote in The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy: 'Our numerals are sometimes called 'Arabic,' but 'Indian' or 'Hindu-Arabic' would be more appropriate.'
Ancient Observatories
Burzahom, near Srinagar, is Kashmir's earliest known human settlement, dating from 8000 BCE to 1000 BCE. Excavated in 1935, the site revealed three stages of the Neolithic period. More interestingly, evidence shows that ancient inhabitants understood astronomy and may have recorded a supernova. Owing to its cultural and scientific value, the site is currently on UNESCO's tentative list for World Heritage Site status.
Mudumal, a prehistoric site of megalithic menhirs (upright stones) in Telangana, dates back approximately 3,500 to 4,000 years. It features, among other remarkable menhir alignments, a group of cup-marked stones arranged in the pattern of the Ursa Major constellation. In Hindu mythology, this is known as Saptarishi, or the Seven Sages, closely linked to the North Star. The site includes 80 large menhirs and 2,000 aligned stones spread over 80 acres, many of which align with the sun during solstices. It is believed to be one of India's oldest known astronomical observatories.
The Surya Mandir or Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha, built in the 13th century CE, reflects the excellence of Kalinga architecture. It pays homage to Surya, the sun god, who is depicted as traversing the sky in a chariot drawn by horses. The temple is said to have been constructed so that the first rays of the rising sun fall upon the main idol of sun god. Moreover, the 24 wheels of the chariot also function as sundials, casting shadows that indicate the time of day.
Apart from the Jantar Mantars built in New Delhi, Jaipur, Varanasi, and other cities—which function as sundials and observatories—another prehistoric megalithic circle deserves mention: Junapani, about 10 kilometers northwest of Maharashtra's Nagpur. These 150 stone circles, which are sepulchral in nature (relating to funerary practices), are said to have been erected between 1000 BCE and 300 CE. Some of these circles are cup-marked, suggesting they served a directional or guiding purpose, potentially indicating the direction of the winter solstice sunrise.
HistoriCity is a column by author Valay Singh that narrates the story of a city that is in the news, by going back to its documented history, mythology and archaeological digs. The views expressed are personal.