New clues from 2 million-year-old tooth enamel tell us more about an ancient relative of humans
Humans today have a diverse array of hominin distant relatives and ancestors from millions of years ago. The South African fossil record ranges from early hominins such as Australopithecus prometheus, A. africanus (Taung child), A. sediba and P. robustus, to early members of the genus Homo (H. erectus/ergaster, H. habilis), to later hominins such as H. naledi and Homo sapiens (humans).
Fossils show how these early relatives evolved from as far back as A. africanus, 3.67 million years ago. They also document milestones in evolution, including the transition to walking on two legs, tool making and increased brain development. Ultimately, our species – Homo sapiens – appeared in South Africa 153,000 years ago.
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Fossils of P. robustus were first discovered in South Africa in 1938. But crucial questions remained. How much variation was there within the species? Were the size differences related to sex, or did they reflect the presence of multiple species? How was P. robustus related to the other hominins and early Homo? And what, genetically, made it distinct?
Until now, answers to these questions have been elusive. As a team of African and European molecular science, chemistry and palaeoanthropology researchers, we wanted to find answers but we couldn't use ancient DNA to help us. Ancient DNA has been a game-changer in studying later hominins like Neanderthals and Denisovans but it doesn't survive well in Africa's climate because of its simple structure.
We experienced a breakthrough when we decided to use palaeoproteomics – the analysis of ancient proteins. We extracted these from the enamel of the 2-million-year-old teeth of four P. robustus fossils from Swartkrans Cave in South Africa's Cradle of Humankind.
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Luckily, proteins that are millions of years old preserve well because they stick to teeth and bones and are not affected by the warm weather. One of these proteins tells us the biological sex of the fossils. This is how we found that two of the individuals were male and two were female.
These findings open a new window into human evolution – one that could reshape how we interpret diversity in our early ancestors by providing some of the oldest human genetic data from Africa. From there, we can understand more about the relationships between the individuals and potentially even whether the fossils come from different species.
The protein sequences also revealed other subtle but potentially significant genetic differences. One standout difference was found in a gene which makes enamelin, a critical enamel-forming protein. We found that two of the individuals shared an amino acid with modern and early humans, chimpanzees and gorillas. The other two had an amino acid that among African great apes is, so far, unique to Paranthropus.
What's even more interesting is that one of the individuals had both the distinct amino acids. This is the first documented time we can show heterozygosity (a state of having two different versions of a gene) in proteins that are 2 million years old.
When studying proteins, specific mutations are thought to indicate different species. We were quite surprised to discover that what we initially thought was a mutation unique to Paranthropus robustus was actually variable within that group – some individuals had it while others did not. Again, this was the first time anyone had observed a protein mutation in ancient proteins (these mutations are usually observed in ancient DNA).
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We realised that instead of seeing a single, variable species, we might be looking at a complex evolutionary puzzle of individuals with different ancestries. This shows that combining analyses of morphology (the study of the form and structure of organisms) and the study of ancient proteins, we can create a clearer evolutionary picture of the relationships among these early hominin individuals.
However, to confirm that P. robustus fossils have different ancestry, we will need to take samples of tooth enamel protein from more of their teeth. To do this, we plan to sustainably sample more P. robustus from other sites in South Africa where they've been found.
Our team was careful to balance scientific innovation with the need to protect irreplaceable heritage. Fossils were sampled minimally, and all work followed South African regulations. We also involved local laboratories in the analysis. Many of the authors were from the African continent. They were instrumental in guiding the research agenda and approach from the early stages of the project.
Doing this kind of high-end science on African fossils in Africa is an important step towards transformation and decolonisation of palaeontology. It builds local capacity and ensures that discoveries benefit the regions from which the fossils come.
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By combining data on molecules and morphology, our study offers a blueprint for future research – one that could clarify whether early hominins were more or less diverse than we've known.
For now, the Paranthropus puzzle just got a little more complex – and a lot more exciting. As palaeoproteomic techniques improve and more fossils are analysed, we can expect more surprises from our ancient relatives.
(Jesper V. Olsen, Rebecca R. Ackermann and Enrico Cappellini were also the principal investigators on this project.)
This article is republished from The Conversation, a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: Palesa P. Madupe, University of Copenhagen; Claire Koenig, University of Copenhagen, and Ioannis Patramanis, University of Copenhagen
Read more:
How old are South African fossils like the Taung Child? New study offers an answer
The fossil skull that rocked the world – 100 years later scientists are grappling with the Taung find's complex colonial legacy
3D technology brings a lost mammalian ancestor back to life
This research project was funded by the European Union's Marie Skłodowska-Curie training network 'PUSHH' under the Horizon 2020 research and innovation program, the European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grant 'BACKWARD,' and the ERC Proof of Concept Grant under the EU's Horizon Europe program.
This research project was funded by the European Union's Marie Skłodowska-Curie training network 'PUSHH' under the Horizon 2020 research and innovation program. The work at the Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research was funded in part by a donation from the Novo Nordisk Foundation.
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National Geographic
3 days ago
- National Geographic
Scientists found cut marks on a 850,000-year-old human neck bone. Was it ... cannibalism?
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Newsweek
4 days ago
- Newsweek
Ancient Burial Discovery Might Redefine Our Past
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Yahoo
25-07-2025
- Yahoo
The grisly discovery that shows our ancestors ate children
Human ancestors ate small children 850,000 years ago, a gruesome discovery has shown. Archaeologists working at the Gran Dolina cave site in Burgos, northern Spain, found a human neck bone belonging to a child aged between two and four years old, with clear butchery marks. The vertebra was found with other bones and teeth belonging to Homo Antecessor, considered to be the last common ancestor of both Homo Sapiens and Neanderthals, and who lived between 1.2 million and 800,000 years ago. Although cannibalism is well documented in early humans, experts say it is unusual to find a child being eaten and it marks the earliest evidence of the practice found to date. The site of the marks on the neck bone suggests the youngster was decapitated. 'This case is particularly striking, not only because of the child's age, but also due to the precision of the cut marks,' said Dr Palmira Saladié, the co-director of the Gran Dolina excavation of the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution. 'The vertebra presents clear incisions at key anatomical points for disarticulating the head. It is direct evidence that the child was processed like any other prey.' Other adult bones belonging to Homo Antecessor found at the site show evidence of defleshing marks and intentional fractures, similar to those found on animal bones consumed by humans. Experts say it suggests that 'early humans exploited their peers as a food resource' and may also have used cannibalism as a method of controlling territory. Homo Antecessor is the earliest human to move into Europe and was given the species name antecessor because it means 'pioneer' or 'early settler' in Latin. It was of stockier build than modern humans, with males ranging in height from 5.2ft to 5.9ft, but had some modern facial features, such as a hollowed cheekbones and a projecting nose, unlike earlier hominids. The earliest evidence of human cannibalism dates back to 1.45 million years where a butchered Homo Erectus bone was found in northern Kenya and it is likely the practice existed until relatively recently. Some archaeologists suggest that before formal burials, human populations would eat the dead as a funerary ritual. At Gough's Cave in Cheddar Gorge, Somerset, human skulls were found that appeared to have been used as cups, dating from 15,000 years ago. Gnawed human bones were also excavated from the same period. Experts believe that, during the Ice Age, cannibalism would have been a good way of finding food in tough times while also removing rival groups and ritually absorbing their power. Hundreds of stone tools have been discovered previously at Gran Dolina, as well as human bones showing evidence of human chewing. 'What we are documenting now is the continuity of that behaviour: the treatment of the dead was not exceptional, but repeated,' added Dr Saladié, a specialist in prehistoric cannibalism. 'Every year we uncover new evidence that forces us to rethink how our ancestors lived, how they died, and how the dead were treated nearly a million years ago.' Broaden your horizons with award-winning British journalism. Try The Telegraph free for 1 month with unlimited access to our award-winning website, exclusive app, money-saving offers and more. Solve the daily Crossword
