Traditional construction techniques to the rescue of Simhachalam Temple
Many of its construction techniques continue to puzzle modern engineers, and this lack of understanding became evident two decades ago when an attempt was made to arrest leaks on the temple roof using cement concrete.
When the leaks reappeared, however, the temple management turned to IIT-Tirupati and the Archaeology Department for help. As per their suggestions, a plan was hammered out to repair the roof of the main temple, the old Kalyana Mandapam and the 'Nivedhanasala' using traditional techniques and materials at ₹4 crore. Funds for the work would come from Lord Venkateswara Charitable and Religious Trust of Pune under the donor scheme.
On February 11, Executive Officer V. Trinadha Rao and trust representative Vishal Limkar exchanged a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to undertake the repairs, and the work, which began in April, is currently under way.
According to K. Muniratnam Reddy, Director-Epigraphy, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), scientific repairs can ensure longevity for ancient rock structures. 'We have suggested the use of traditional materials—lime, Arabic tree gum, hirda, jaggery, okra, jute and urad dal,' he added. Muniratnam Reddy was visiting Simhachalam temple to participate in the MoU exchange programme.
On the preparation of the traditional mortar, he said that materials like Arabic tree gum, jaggery and jute would be boiled and kept in tanks for about a month and a half. After that, lime and surkhi would be mixed to form a concrete of sorts. Around 80% of the restoration work, being carried out by Uttaradevi Charitable Trust-Pune, has been completed, he added.
The main temple has a common roof for both Sri Swamy Varu and Ammavaru. Leaks have developed on the temple beda mandapams on the four sides (north, south, east and west), the Asthana mandapam, Kalyana mandapam, pakasala-1 and pakasala-2 (the lord's kitchen). The common roof is spread over 24,000 sq.ft., according to the temple management.
The roof is made of hard black stone slabs, which is not locally available. These slabs are overlaid with brick jelly (second layer), surki lime (third layer) and cement concrete and mortar (fourth layer).
Age of the temple
Though the exact age of the temple remains unknown, an inscription found at the temple has been dated to 1098-99 CE. It is believed to have been commissioned by Chola Emperor Kulottunga-I, who conquered the Kalinga territories. It could be deducted that the temple must have been a place of importance even at that period. Another inscription shows that a queen of the Velanandu chief Gonka III (1137-56 CE) gilded the idol in gold.
The central shrine, the mukhamandapam, the natyamandapam and the enclosing veranda were built in the later half of 13th century using black stone. The temple also has inscriptions commissioned by Vijayanagara Emperor Krishna Devaraya, recounting his successes and narrating how he and his queen presented the lord with a necklace of 991 pearls and other costly gifts.
The government epigraphist's lists for 1899 shows that the temple has at least 125 such inscriptions, making it a repository of the the district's history.
'Sthalapurana'
Local legend has it that the temple was built by demon king Hiranyakasipu's son Prahlada. Hiranyakasipu and brother Hiranyaksha were mighty demons bent on disturbing world peace. When Lord Vishnu slayed Hiranyaksha by assuming his boar incarnation (Varaha Avatara), Hiranyakasipu swore revenge.
He propitiated Lord Brahma and secured a boon that he could not be killed by either animal or a man, neither in the morning nor at night, by any weapons and neither in sky nor on the earth.
Much to Hiranyakasipu's chagrin, however, his son Prahlada became a devotee of Lord Vishnu right from his birth. When his attempts to mend the ways of his son failed, Hiranyakasipu asked his servants to throw him into the sea. His servants chose to drop Prahlada at sea near Mount Simhadri, but he was saved by Lord Vishnu. Simhadri is thus the place where the Lord rescued Prahlada. According to the Stalapurana, Prahlada built a temple for the deity. At the end of that life-cycle (Krita yuga), however, the temple was neglected and fell into disrepair.
At the beginning of another life-cycle, the temple was discovered by Emperor Pururava of the Lunar Dynasty. He worshipped the deity and rebuilt the temple.
Architectural grandeur
The temple has a square shrine surmounted by a high tower, a portico in the front with a smaller tower above it, a sixteen-pillar square mandapam (mukhamandapam) facing this and an enclosed veranda, all made of dark granite richly and delicately carved with ornamental floral designs and scenes from Vishnu Puranas.
One of the pillars is called the kappa stambham or 'tribute pillar', which devotees believe has the ability to cure diseases. In the veranda is a stone car with stone wheels and prancing stone horses.
Outside this inner enclosure, to the north of the temple, is a Natyamandapam, where the Lord's wedding is performed. This is supported by 96 pillars of black stone arranged in sixteen rows of six each. Each pillar is embellished with unique carvings but has the general capital of an inverted lotus.
The idol remains covered in sandal paste, which is ritualistically removed once a year (on Akshaya Thritheeya day). Celebrated as Chandanayatra or Chandanotsavam, this occasion gives devotees a glimpse of the idol's true form; it is the most important festival in this temple.
The temple is supervised by the family of the Vizianagaram Samsthanam and is being run under their trusteeship. According to their resolutions, necessary activities are taken up for the temple administration. The Commissioner of Endowments is the final authority for all the decisions and rulings on temple maintenance.
Hashtags
Try Our AI Features
Explore what Daily8 AI can do for you:
Comments
No comments yet...
Related Articles
NDTV
38 minutes ago
- NDTV
Afghan Girls Turn To Madrassas Amid Education Ban By Taliban
Kabul: For six hours every day after school, Nahideh works in a cemetery, collecting water from a nearby shrine to sell to mourners visiting loved ones' graves. She dreams of becoming a doctor - but knows it is a futile dream. When the next school year starts, she will be enrolling in a madrassa, a religious school, to learn about the Quran and Islam - and little else. "I prefer to go to school, but I can't, so I will go to a madrassa," she said, dark brown eyes peering out from beneath her tightly wrapped black headscarf. "If I could go to school then I could learn and become a doctor. But I can't." At the age of 13, Nahideh is in the last grade of primary school, the limit of education allowed for girls in Afghanistan. The country's Taliban government banned girls from secondary school and university three years ago - the only country in the world to do so. The ban is part of myriad restrictions on women and girls, dictating everything from what they can wear to where they can go and who they can go with. With no option for higher education, many girls and women are turning to madrassas instead. "Since the schools are closed to girls, they see this as an opportunity," said Zahid-ur-Rehman Sahibi, director of the Tasnim Nasrat Islamic Sciences Educational Center in Kabul. "So, they come here to stay engaged in learning and studying religious sciences." The center's roughly 400 students range in ages from about 3 to 60, and 90% are female. They study the Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, and Arabic, the language of the Quran. Most Afghans, Sahibi noted, are religious. "Even before the schools were closed, many used to attend madrassas," he said. "But after the closure of schools, the interest has increased significantly, because the doors of the madrassas remain open to them." No recent official figures are available on the number of girls enrolled in madrassas, but officials say the popularity of religious schools overall has been growing. Last September, Deputy Minister of Education Karamatullah Akhundzada said at least 1 million students had enrolled in madrassas over the past year alone, bringing the total to over 3 million. Sheltered from the heat of an early summer's day in a basement room at the Tasnim Nasrat center, Sahibi's students knelt at small plastic tables on the carpeted floor, their pencils tracing lines of Arabic script in their Qurans. All 10 young women wore black niqabs, the all-encompassing garment that includes a veil, leaving only the eyes visible. "It is very good for girls and women to study at a madrassa, because ... the Quran is the word of Allah, and we are Muslims," said 25-year-old Faiza, who had enrolled at the center five months earlier. "Therefore, it is our duty to know what is in the book that Allah has revealed to us, to understand its interpretation and translation." Given a choice, she would have studied medicine. While she knows that is now impossible, she still harbors hope that if she shows she is a pious student dedicated to her religion, she will be eventually allowed to. The medical profession is one of the very few still open to women in Afghanistan. "When my family sees that I am learning Quranic sciences and that I am practicing all the teachings of the Quran in my life, and they are assured of this, they will definitely allow me to continue my studies," she said. Her teacher said he'd prefer if women were not strictly limited to religious studies. "In my opinion, it is very important for a sister or a woman to learn both religious sciences and other subjects, because modern knowledge is also an important part of society," Sahibi said. "Islam also recommends that modern sciences should be learned because they are necessary, and religious sciences are important alongside them. Both should be learned simultaneously." The female secondary and higher education ban has been controversial in Afghanistan, even within the ranks of the Taliban itself. In a rare sign of open dissent, Deputy Foreign Minister Sher Abbas Stanikzai said in a public speech in January that there was no justification for denying education to girls and women. His remarks were reportedly not well tolerated by the Taliban leadership; Stanikzai is now officially on leave and is believed to have left the country. But they were a clear indication that many in Afghanistan recognize the long-term impact of denying education to girls. "If this ban persists until 2030, over four million girls will have been deprived of their right to education beyond primary school," UNICEF Executive Director Catherine Russell said in a statement at the start of Afghanistan's new school year in March. "The consequences for these girls - and for Afghanistan - are catastrophic. The ban negatively impacts the health system, the economy, and the future of the nation." For some in this deeply conservative society, the teachings of Islam are hard to overstate. "Learning the Holy Quran is the foundation of all other sciences, whether it's medicine, engineering, or other fields of knowledge," said Mullah Mohammed Jan Mukhtar, 35, who runs a boys' madrassa north of Kabul. "If someone first learns the Quran, they will then be able to learn these other sciences much better." His madrassa first opened five years ago with 35 students. Now it has 160 boys aged 5-21, half of whom are boarders. Beyond religious studies, it offers a limited number of other classes such as English and math. There is also an affiliated girls' madrassa, which currently has 90 students, he said. "In my opinion, there should be more madrassas for women," said Mukhtar, who has been a mullah for 14 years. He stressed the importance of religious education for women. "When they are aware of religious verdicts, they better understand the rights of their husbands, in-laws and other family members."
Indian Express
2 hours ago
- Indian Express
Why Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple
— Ajeya Vajpayee A number of stone shrines associated with the Chola dynasty stand in the Kaveri basin, between the historical regions of Tondaimandalam and Madurai. Their territory is widely recognised as Cōl̥amaṇḍalam, 'the land of the Cholas'. The Cholas were known as early as the 3rd century BCE through the Aśokan inscriptions, and in the first two centuries CE through Sangama literature. But their significant reemergence and control of the Kaveri region began in the ninth century CE under Vijayālaya Chola. The initial phase of Chola temple architecture during the consolidation of their political power in Tanjore (Thanjavur) was modest. It consisted of single-storey shrines with square or octagonal towers, indicating a Pallava bearing. Numerous epigraphs on surviving stone shrines suggest the existence of an earlier tradition. It indicates that these stone shrines were constructed as replacements for earlier brick shrines under the aegis of Sembiyan Mahādēvi, the queen of Gaṇḍarāditya. Amidst much confusion regarding the patronage and time period of the early shrines – such as Narttamalai Vijayālaya Cōlīśvara, Pullamangai Brahmāpurīśvara, and Kumbhakonam Nagēśvara – the limitations of using dynastic labels to define art become relevant. What is Chola architectural style? What defines a structure as Chola? Is it royal or allied patronage? Its location within the Chola political domain? Or the fact that it was constructed during their period of power? Nevertheless, three royal temples – the Tanjore Brihadēśvara, Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Darasuram Airavatēśvara – built between the 11th and 12th centuries CE, best delineate what is considered the Chola style. A standard Chola temple was configured along an east-west axis, consisting of an entry hall (mukhamaṇḍapa), a pillared hall (ardhamaṇḍapa), a vestibule (antarāl̥a), and a sanctum (garbhagṛha) sheltered by a Tamil Draviḍa–style superstructure. The state temples, such as the Brihadēśvara at Tanjore (Thanjavur), Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Airavatēśvara at Darasuram, were laid out in a manner that they served as focal points of their capitals. These shrines not only outweigh the earlier shrines in terms of their spatial elaboration, but also in their overwhelming monumentality. Rājarāja's Brihadēśvara temple at Tanjore of the 11th century CE is constructed on elevated ground encircled by a moat. It consists of a mukhamaṇḍapa (entry hall), an ardhamaṇḍapa (pillared hall), an antarāl̥a (vestibule), a two-levelled shrine with a circumambulatory path, and a fourteen-tiered tower, originally crowned by a gold-plated stupi (finial), and a copper kalaśa. The vimana (shrine plus superstructure) of the Brihadēśvara measures approximately 60 metres, twice the size of its predecessors. The large courtyard also features a Nandi maṇḍapa, two large gopurams (gateways) of three and five storeys, topped by a barrel-vaulted roof (śālā), the now absent brick palace of Rājarāja – which was once connected to the main temple on the north – and the allied shrine of Candēśvara. In its transition from the Pallava tradition, where gopurams served as an entrance to the temple complex, the Brihadēśvara gopurams began reflecting the aesthetics of the shrine and eventually surpassed them in size. Rājarāja's heir, Rajendra I, after his successful campaign in the north, returned with the water of the Ganga to sanctify and commemorate his victory at a new capital in his homeland, called Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram ('City of the Chola who conquered the Ganges'). There, he built a Śiva temple similar in form to Tanjore Brihadēśvara, but smaller in scale, which rises up to 50 meters. An extensively columned hall, bearing 150 pillars, is attached to the shrine at Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, setting a precedent that would be followed hereafter. Sculptures in stone and bronze, and murals adorned the exteriors and interiors of the Chola temples. However, they lacked the rhythm and flexibility of the early corpus, partly because of their large dimension. The sculptural remains in various media were not only aesthetic and religious in nature but also carried strong political connotations. For instance, the Brihadēśvara temple, also called Rājarājēśvaram-uṭaiyar after its patron king, features 38 depictions of Śiva as Tripurāntaka, the four-armed, bow-wielding cosmic warrior. Of these, 37 are stone sculptures, and one is a mural. These are located on the two-storey walls, base, and gopuram of the temple. According to Gerd Mevissen, these depictions assert his dominance, identify him with the deity, and serve as protective statues to ward off rivals such as the Rāṣṭr̥akūṭas, Kalyāṇi Cālukyas, Pāṇḍyas, Cēras, and Simhalas. Similarly, the maṇḍapa of Rājarāja II's Darasuram Airavatēśvara temple, constructed in the mid-12th century CE, features several Tripurāntaka images on its walls, pillars, and base. This temple, ingeniously conceived in the form of a chariot (rathamaṇḍapa), features the Tripurāntaka imagery and myth. According to Gerd Mevissen, this imagery is used as a trope to invoke the deity, 'who is worshipped for bringing death to enemies', and to regain and restore their waning power over rivals. The widespread use of Tripurāntaka imagery in Chōl̥a temples is thus regarded as an extension of the political allusion. At Rājasiṁha's Kanchipuram Kailāśanātha, the imagery was directed at their rival, the Badami Calukyas. Living world of Chola temples The Chola period also produced many ritualistic bronze images of deities in portable sizes. Inscriptions reveal that the Brihadēśvara temple in Tanjore owned 66 bronze images of gods, saints, and Rājarāja himself. Among several royal commissions, the theatrical representation of Śiva's marriage with Parvati is noteworthy (Kalyāṇasundara). Śiva and Parvati stand flanking each other in graceful postures, their hands clasped. Laksmi, flanking Parvati, is depicted pushing the bashful bride towards the groom. Visnu, serving as their officiant, is carved on a separate pedestal. Temple inscriptions also record generous donations of gold and gem jewellery towards the bronze images. Rājarāja's Brihadēśvara temple served as the town's nucleus, supported by a large workforce dedicated to its maintenance. Epigraphs mention architects, sculptors, painters, bronze casters, jewellers, priests, and financial agents among those involved in its maintenance. The temple functioned not only as a religious site but also as the town's civic centre, educational hub, and bank. It hosted dance and music events as part of its rituals, with inscriptions noting 67 temple musicians: five sang Vedic hymns, four performed Tamil hymns (Tevaram), and five served as vocalists. The temple also loaned money at an interest rate of 12.5 per cent, with Candesa (an individual) serving as its financial agent. One recorded transaction states: 'We have received from Candesa, the first servant of the divine lord, 500 coins out of the money deposited'. However, the monumental projects of the Cholas began to decline in the 12th century CE as their influence over rivals diminished. Their grand architectural vision is reflected in the large complexes of the Vijayanagara and the temple towns built in the region afterwards. What are the distinguishing architectural designs of Chola temples? In what ways did these temples serve as political statements as much as religious structures? What spatial and structural innovations distinguish the Brihadēśvara temple from earlier South Indian temple traditions? How did these changes redefine the sacred space? In what ways do the temples at Tanjore, Gangaikoṇḍacōl̥apuram, and Darasuram represent a continuum and culmination of Chola architectural vision? How did the use of the Tripurāntaka imagery carried political connotation in Chola temples? What do epigraphic records about temple musicians, artisans, and financial agents reveal about the socio-economic structure and cultural life of Chola temple towns? (Ajeya holds a PhD in History from the University of Delhi. Her research focuses on the art historical traditions of India and South Asia.) Share your thoughts and ideas on UPSC Special articles with Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X.
New Indian Express
10 hours ago
- New Indian Express
Telugu inscription dating back to eighth century unearthed at Konakanamitla
ONGOLE: An early Telugu stone inscription dating back to the 8th century CE has been discovered in Gotlagattu village of Konakanamitla mandal of Prakasam district. The inscription was found engraved on a broken stone lying in the agricultural fields of local farmer Konaki Ramanayya. Historian Vidwan Jyothi Chandramouli from Addanki inspected the inscription and identified its potential significance. Photographs of the find were subsequently sent to the Epigraphy Wing of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in Mysuru for expert analysis. On Wednesday, Dr K Muniratnam Reddy, Director (Epigraphy) at ASI-Mysuru, confirmed that the inscription is in early Telugu script and dates to the 8th century CE. The fragment consists of seven lines of text, although most of the script is damaged and difficult to decipher. 'Despite the fragmentary nature, we could make out words like 'Turu' in the second line, 'Gepi kra' in the third, 'Vittani' in the fourth, and 'Swasti Sree Kuru' in the seventh,' said Dr Reddy. 'The inscription likely records a land donation measured by rod (kollu), though further details are unclear due to erosion.' He expressed concern over the destruction of ancient artefacts and stated, 'Many early inscriptions and historical materials are being unknowingly lost. We urge the public to inform government authorities or ASI officials if they come across any inscriptions, palm-leaf manuscripts, sculptures, or other historical evidence.'
