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National Geographic
2 days ago
- General
- National Geographic
Who was the first king of England?
A portrait of Aethelstan, who was King of England from 924 until 939 A.D, in a book commissioned for presentation to the community of St. Cuthbert. The famous presentation picture shows Æthelstan, with bowed head, presenting the book to St. Cuthbert himself, and is an important example of the revival of figure art in manuscript painting during Æthelstan's reign. It was written between 934 and 939. Although Aethelstan is generally agreed to be England's first true king, a number of other figures—and factors—make that designation complicated and historically rich. Image by CBW, Alamy Stock Photo Scholarly consensus positions Aethelstan as the first true king of England. But what makes a king? Is it authority over people? Over land? Is it some combination of the two? These are some of the key questions in assessing when and why any monarchy develops. At the same time, these same questions often serve to complicate the identification of the first king of any realm. We need not look further than England to understand why. Aethelstan was crowned King of the Anglo-Saxons in 925 A.D. However, understanding the other contenders for that title—and the history of the disparate kingdoms that became England—adds layers of complexity to answering the deceptively simple question: who was the first king of England? To really begin to locate the first king of England, one must start with the Angles. The name England, after all, derives from the Old English word Englaland, literally 'land of the Angles.' The arrival of these Germanic tribes to what was formerly the Roman province Britannia took place during the 5th century A.D. Alongside Jutes, Saxons, and Frisians, the Angles established settlements in southeast and east England through the 6th century. (A journey along Hadrian's Wall can be like taking a walk through Roman-era Britannia.) With time, Germanic language and culture melded with existing Romano-British practices and traditions. By 600 A.D., individual kingdoms took shape throughout the British Isles. These Germanic kingdoms were formed in accordance with peoples living in an area, as opposed to physical boundaries or borders. In time, smaller kingdoms coalesced to become larger ones, and what's been called the Heptarchy emerged. While the Heptarchy is a vast oversimplification of a complex social, political, and religious setting in England, it was built of seven kingdoms: Kent, Sussex, East Anglia, Northumbria, Essex, Wessex, and Mercia. Each major kingdom included minor kingdoms with leaders of their own, many of whom vied for power within the larger sphere of influence. Rule was established and maintained through reciprocal relationships based in loyalty and protection, as well as an economic system contingent upon coordinated dues and services. According to lore, King Aethelstan ordered the Bible to be translated into the Anglo-Saxon language, the decree of which is depicted here circa 930. The History of England by George Courtney Lyttleton, 1805. Image by Hulton Archive, Getty Images Contenders for the king of England Major kingdoms in England competed for superiority among themselves, eventually resulting in a struggle that revolved around Mercia dominating the other kingdoms through much of the 8th century. This resembled what Bede described in his Ecclesiastical History—completed in 731 A.D.—as a ruler who 'held sway' over peoples outside his own kingdom. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a history of the Anglo-Saxons created in the 9th century, used the term bretwalda to represent this concept, applying it retroactively to Anglo-Saxon kings who ruled as early as the late 5th century. (The Sutton Hoo cache is a time capsule of 7th-century Anglo-Saxon life.) Mercia's hegemony shifted during the reign of King Eghbert of Wessex (r. 802-839 A.D.). Under King Eghbert, Wessex defeated the Mercians at the battle of Ellendon in 825 A.D., after which the major kingdoms acknowledged his supremacy. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle identified King Eghbert as a bretwalda (again with the gift of hindsight), which serves as the crux of his candidacy for first king of England. One additional factor influenced King Eghbert's contention for the distinction as England's first king. Where Mercia had struggled with the idea of peaceful succession, Wessex succeeded. After Eghbert's death, his son, Aethelwulf (d. 850 A.D.) ascended to the throne. A son ascending to the throne upon his father's death infused the principle of hereditary succession in Wessex. Following King Aethelwulf's death, three of his sons served as King of Wessex, ultimately leading to the accession of a fourth in 871 A.D. This was Alfred, another considered contender for the first King of England. (Here's what life in medieval Europe was really like) Alfred, the unlikely king Alfred was never supposed to rule Wessex. When his older brother Aethelred died while campaigning against Scandinavian marauders, Alfred became king. As King of Wessex, Alfred continued defending his kingdom from what the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle termed the 'Great Heathen Army.' Comprising Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes, the Great Heathen Army first arrived in East Anglia in 865 A.D. and, within a decade, the only kingdom they left standing was Wessex. After defeating Scandinavian forces at the Battle of Edington in 878 A.D., Alfred entered into a peace agreement with their leader, Guthrum, formally establishing a boundary between Wessex and the Viking-controlled areas. The latter came to be known as the Danelaw. (Viking myths can be exciting, but are they always true?) However, this permanent Scandinavian presence to the north, as well as continued Viking raids and incursions, prompted Alfred to take steps to secure the kingdom. He reformed the military, established defensive settlements called burhs, and established a navy to defend the coasts of Wessex from attacks. Alongside these efforts, Alfred undertook intellectual activities that have been credited with helping to create the cultural and political identity of England. All of this—and the designation of Alfred as 'King of the Anglo-Saxons' in charters attributed to him—make a solid case for his candidacy for the first king of England. (Britain's first Black queen? The real story of Queen Charlotte.) In this illuminated manuscript from the 14th century, Aethelstan kneels before the legendary English hero Guy of Warwick. Illustration by Peter of Langtoft, Alamy Stock Photo Aethelstan, the first king of England Alfred died in 899 A.D. and his son, Edward the Elder, took the throne. Edward died in 924 and, after his demise, his son Aethelstan was crowned king in 925 A.D. Just like his grandfather Alfred the Great and father, Aethelstan began as King of the Anglo-Saxons. He differed in the extent of his domain, notably after the Battle of Brunaburh in 937 A.D. Aethelstan's authority was never uncontested and, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he spent the decade after he became king bringing York and Northumbria under his control. By 937, Welsh kings, as well as those of the Scots and Viking Dublin, united against Aethelstan, ultimately facing off against their common foe at Brunanburh. The exact location of Brunanburh remains unclear, but the fight that took place there is considered by many scholars to be one of the defining events in British history. (England was born on this battlefield. Why can't historians find it?) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle includes a poem about the Battle of Brunanburh that details how West Saxons slaughtered their enemies, with five opposing kings and seven defiant earls laying dead. The poem explains how 'no slaughter yet was greater made e'er in this island,' an expression of how devastating yet significant the conflict was to the people and land alike. 'Despite the arguments in favor of [other contenders], the weight of the evidence rests with Aethelstan. It was Aethelstan who went to York, defeated the Viking kingdom there, and brought the north (if sometimes only nominally) under English rule,' summarizes Karl Shoemaker, Robert F. and Sylvia T. Wagner Distinguished Professor, UW-Madison History and Law. 'By the end of his reign, he had achieved more bureaucratic and administrative centralization than any of his predecessors.' It was Aethelstan's victory at Brunanburh that extended the King of the Anglo-Saxons' dominion into Scotland and Wales. It also solidified his rule as king of the English. Aethelstan only lived for two years after this fight but, to many, he became the true first king of England with that victory. This story originally published on May 2, 2023. It was updated on July 29, 2025.
New York Post
7 days ago
- General
- New York Post
Amateur metal detectorist's ‘feeling' helps archaeologists uncover 2,000-year-old Roman settlement
Archaeologists uncovered an 'extensive' Ancient Roman settlement in an idyllic tourist destination in England – all thanks to the chance discovery of an amateur metal detectorist. In a press release shared with Fox News Digital, Cotswold Archaeology announced the discovery of the Roman settlement in Gloucestershire, a county within the Cotswold region of England. Advertisement The settlement dates back 2,000 years; it was inhabited between the first and second centuries A.D. The excavation near Willersey was done as a joint effort with Historic England. Among the recent discoveries were a Roman villa, remains of limestone buildings — and at least three Iron Age ring ditches. Excavators also found the remnants of Roman building materials, including ceramic roofing, painted wall plaster and box flue tiles. 'Once Historic England has the final report on the archaeological work, it will be able to consider whether to recommend to the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) that the site be protected as a scheduled monument,' the statement said. Advertisement 4 Cotswold Archaeology announced the discovery of a Roman settlement in Gloucestershire, thanks to an amateur metal detectorist. Cotswold Archaeology / Historic England The recent excavation was all thanks to an amateur metal detectorist who found two iron Roman cavalry swords in the same location in March 2023. The hobbyist, Glenn Manning, reported his finds to the government, and they were subsequently donated to the local Corinium Museum in Cirencester. Advertisement 'The X-rays show that the swords were constructed differently: one has evidence of decorative pattern welding running down the center, whereas the other sword is plain,' Cotswold Archaeology explained in its statement. 'The pattern-welded sword would have been more expensive to produce and therefore higher status.' 'We turned a plowed field, the swords, and geophysical anomalies into the story of a settlement spanning hundreds of years.' The long swords likely belonged to cavalrymen in the second century, the organization said. Advertisement 4 Glenn Manning reported his findings of two iron Roman cavalry swords to the government, which were donated to the Corinium Museum in Cirencester. Cotswold Archaeology / Historic England 4 Painted wall plaster pieces were found. Cotswold Archaeology / Historic England 4 Pieces discovered at the Roman settlement. Cotswold Archaeology / Historic England 'They are contemporary with the villa,' its statement added. 'How they came to be there, though, is currently unknown.' Near Willersley, archaeologists also uncovered a burial of a skeleton that still retained an iron band around its arm. A horse skull was also found – but whether the remains date back to the Roman settlement is still unknown. In a statement, Cotswold Archaeology onsite project officer Peter Busby said he was 'very proud' of the achievement. Advertisement 'We turned a plowed field, the swords, and geophysical anomalies into the story of a settlement spanning hundreds of years – the first stage in telling the history of these fields and their cavalry swords,' the archaeologist said. 'This was only my second time metal detecting. I'm excited to find out more about them.' Glenn Manning, the metal detectorist who found the swords, described his experience as 'amazing.' He recalled, 'The morning before the rally, I had a feeling I would find something special. This was only my second time metal detecting. I'm excited to find out more about them.' Advertisement The Romans occupied the British Isles from 43 A.D. until 410 A.D., and many remnants of the era still emerge today. In May, British archaeologists announced the discovery of an unusual eight-sided Roman ring in a former drainage ditch in Lincolnshire. Before that, a Roman grave filled with gypsum was found during a highway construction project in England.
Fox News
7 days ago
- General
- Fox News
Metal detectorist's 'feeling' leads to massive Roman settlement discovery in popular tourist hotspot
Archaeologists uncovered an "extensive" Ancient Roman settlement in an idyllic tourist destination in England – all thanks to the chance discovery of an amateur metal detectorist. In a press release shared with Fox News Digital, Cotswold Archaeology announced the discovery of the Roman settlement in Gloucestershire, a county within the Cotswold region of England. (See the video at the top of this article.) The settlement dates back 2,000 years; it was inhabited between the first and second centuries A.D. The excavation near Willersey was done as a joint effort with Historic England. Among the recent discoveries were a Roman villa, remains of limestone buildings — and at least three Iron Age ring ditches. Excavators also found the remnants of Roman building materials, including ceramic roofing, painted wall plaster and box flue tiles. "Once Historic England has the final report on the archaeological work, it will be able to consider whether to recommend to the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) that the site be protected as a scheduled monument," the statement said. The recent excavation was all thanks to an amateur metal detectorist who found two iron Roman cavalry swords in the same location in March 2023. The hobbyist, Glenn Manning, reported his finds to the government, and they were subsequently donated to the local Corinium Museum in Cirencester. "The X-rays show that the swords were constructed differently: one has evidence of decorative pattern welding running down the center, whereas the other sword is plain," Cotswold Archaeology explained in its statement. "The pattern-welded sword would have been more expensive to produce and therefore higher status." "We turned a plowed field, the swords, and geophysical anomalies into the story of a settlement spanning hundreds of years." The long swords likely belonged to cavalrymen in the second century, the organization said. "They are contemporary with the villa," its statement added. "How they came to be there, though, is currently unknown." Near Willersley, archaeologists also uncovered a burial of a skeleton that still retained an iron band around its arm. A horse skull was also found – but whether the remains date back to the Roman settlement is still unknown. In a statement, Cotswold Archaeology onsite project officer Peter Busby said he was "very proud" of the achievement. "We turned a plowed field, the swords, and geophysical anomalies into the story of a settlement spanning hundreds of years – the first stage in telling the history of these fields and their cavalry swords," the archaeologist said. "This was only my second time metal detecting. I'm excited to find out more about them." Glenn Manning, the metal detectorist who found the swords, described his experience as "amazing." He recalled, "The morning before the rally, I had a feeling I would find something special. This was only my second time metal detecting. I'm excited to find out more about them." The Romans occupied the British Isles from 43 A.D. until 410 A.D., and many remnants of the era still emerge today. In May, British archaeologists announced the discovery of an unusual eight-sided Roman ring in a former drainage ditch in Lincolnshire. Before that, a Roman grave filled with gypsum was found during a highway construction project in England.
American Military News
20-07-2025
- Science
- American Military News
1,600-year-old settlement discovered with Roman military artifacts
A Roman-era settlement estimated to be roughly 1,600 years old was recently discovered by archaeologists in Delbrück, Germany. The archeological discovery included the remains of at least two buildings and hundreds of ancient artifacts. According to Fox News, the Roman-era settlement was recently discovered as part of an excavation by the Regional Association of Westphalia-Lippe (LWL) at Schafbreite, which is located in Delbrück, Germany. In a statement obtained by Fox News, the LWL confirmed that hundreds of ancient artifacts were discovered at the Schafbreite location, with most of the artifacts traced back to the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. Fox News reported that archaeologists uncovered two 'clearly identifiable' buildings, two wells, two pit houses, a cremation grave, and hundreds of artifacts as part of the excavation. The LWL stated, 'Seven hundred and fifty individual finds were recovered from the ancient cultural layer preserved under a thick ash soil, 600 of which were metal.' According to Fox News, LWL archaeologists noted that the site of the excavation appears to have been 'settled at different times, making it a multi-period settlement site.' 'The finds from various periods also show that the inhabitants had access to Roman material culture,' archaeologists added. READ MORE: Captain Cook's lost ship found off Rhode Island coast Fox News reported that Sven Spiong, one of the lead archaeologists for LWL, suggested that the mysterious excavation provides insight into the Migration Period, which took place from 300 to 600 A.D. Spiong explained, 'Sites like these help us better understand how the people of the region lived and worked during the arrival of the Romans and in the following centuries, what interregional contacts and connections they had, and how the settlement structure changed during the Migration Period.' LWL confirmed that an 'isolated cremation grave' was discovered during the excavation and that archaeologists discovered that a person was buried with a spearhead, a broken bone comb, two garment clasps, a fire steel, and an animal head buckle. 'Experts date this buckle to the 4th or 5th century based on its shape,' LWL stated. 'It further confirms the settlers' contact with the Roman cultural sphere, as it belonged to the Roman military belt.' According to Fox News, while researchers were not able to identify the burial, the archaeological organization suggested that the individual could have been a Germanic mercenary who served in the Roman military. '[It's] a special find, as it is the first burial in East Westphalia where parts of a Roman military belt have been detected, previously only known from surface finds in other regions,' the LWL said.
The Irish Sun
16-07-2025
- Entertainment
- The Irish Sun
Saucy 2,000-year-old ‘erotic art' stolen by Nazis from Pompeii treasure trove during WW2 finally handed in
ANCIENT erotic art stolen from Pompeii more than 80 years ago has finally been returned, Italy's cultural heritage police have announced. The 2,000-year-old mosaic, depicting a half-naked couple, was stolen by a Nazi officer during World War Two. 5 The piece shows a man reclining in bed with his female partner standing in front of him - and is a classic piece of ancient Roman art Credit: Reuters 5 The Nazi officer gifted the piece to a civilian, who kept it until his death Credit: Reuters 5 The mosaic panel, set on a slab of travertine, dates to between the late 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D Credit: Reuters The piece shows a man reclining in bed with his female partner standing in front of him - and is a classic piece of ancient Roman art. It was returned to Pompeii following a diplomatic effort between Italy and Germany, the police said in a statement. The mosaic was taken from the area around Pompeii, near Naples, during the war by a German Nazi army captain, who had been assigned to military logistics in Italy. The Nazi officer gifted the piece to a civilian, who kept it until his death. READ MORE ON POMPEII Though his heirs contacted the Italian authorities to arrange its return once they realised the artwork's origin. The mosaic panel, set on a slab of travertine, dates to between the late 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D. It marks a cultural shift in ancient Roman art, according to Gabriel Zuchtriegel, the German-born director of the Pompeii archaeological park. Previously, Roman art was dominated by heroic myths, legends and Gods. Most read in Science But everyday intimacy had started to become common in artworks later on. "Here we see a new theme, the routine of domestic love," he said, noting that the male figure's expression "seems almost a little bored". Ancient Pompeii home unseen for 2,000 YEARS finally unearthed The mosaic will be put on display at Pompeii, alongside the hundreds of other items and archaeological treasures. The Romans' affinity for brothels, alcohol, and pornography has been well documented and discovered among the ruins of Pompeii - the city buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. 5 Fresco from the Villa dei Misteri, Pompeii Credit: Getty Hundreds of sexually explicit works of art from Pompeii have been placed in the Secret Museum in the National Archaeological Museum in Naples. These include graphic sex scenes - which experts believe could be advertisements for local brothels, as well as lots of phallic statuary, believed to bring wealth, fertility, and good luck. Some of these pieces were so cheeky that they were deemed "pornographic" in 1821, and the National Archaeological Museum closed the room to visitors in 1849. The Secret Museum didn't reopen for good until 2000. 5 Pompeii was the ancient Roman city buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Credit: Getty The destruction of Pompeii – what happened in 79 AD? Pompeii was an ancient Roman city near modern Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. It was destroyed, along with the Roman town of Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area, and buried under volcanic ash in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The violent explosion killed the city's inhabitants, with the site lost for around 1,500 years until its initial redsicovery in 1599 and broader redesicovery almost 150 years after that. The thermal energy released from Vesuvius was said to be a hundred thousand times that of the nuclear blasts at Hiroshima-Nagasaki. The remains beneath the city have been preserved for more than a millenium due to the lack of air and moisture in the ground. During excavations, plaster was injected into the voids in the ash layers that once held human bodies, allowing scientists to recreate their exact poses at the time of their deaths. Mount Vesuvius is arguably the most dangerous volcano on earth. It had been inactive for almost a century before roaring back into life and destroying Pompeii. Since then, it has exploded around three dozen more times – most recently in 1944 – and stands in close proximity to three million people. Although its current status is dormant, Vesuvius is an 'extremely active' and unpredictable volcano, according to experts. To this day, scientists are finding cultural, architectural and human remains on the banks of Mount Vesuvius. Excavations at thermal baths in Pompeii's ruins in February revealed the skeleton of a crouching child who perished in the 79 AD eruption.
