Latest news with #AlexanderFleming
21-07-2025
- Health
Good and Good for You! Easy and Doctor-Approved Kanten Recipes
Invented in Japan, kanten , or agar, originates from Chinese tokoroten and began being produced in the Edo period (1603–1868). Although often confused with gelatin, it is different in a number of ways, including the ingredients, its production process, and how it is handled. Kanten comes in three forms: bōkanten sticks, itokanten strands, and konakanten powder. Bōkanten (also known as kakukanten blocks) and itokanten are made mainly from the red seaweed tengusa ( Gelidiaceae ) which is boiled to produce a liquid that is then cooled and set to create tokoroten . It is then further processed using the traditional method of freeze-drying. These types of kanten can be rehydrated, after which the excess water is squeezed out and the ingredient is then cut into bite-sized pieces to be eaten in salads or soup. Konakanten , on the other hand, is generally made by combining tengusa with a similar red seaweed like ogonori ( Gracilaria ) and industrially produced. It has a wide range of uses, including for food processing in factories, moisturizing in cosmetics, and capsules in pharmaceuticals. In any case, kanten is special because, as it is made from seaweed, it is rich in dietary fiber and extremely low in calories. From left to right, bōkanten , itokanten , and konakanten . (© Pixta) Gelatin, meanwhile, is made from collagen extracted from the bones and skin of animals like pigs, cows, and fish. Its main nutrient is protein and it contains no dietary fiber at all. When compared to kanten before rehydration, it also has more than twice as many calories, gram for gram. This means that desserts made with kanten are much healthier. It can also be enjoyed with peace of mind by Muslims, who refrain from eating pork products, and vegans. Related content Kanten: A Japanese Health Food Boasting a 200-Year-Old Industry Water Retainment Produces a Weight Loss Aid Kanten is produced through the traditional method of drying tokoroten outside during winter, repeatedly freeze-drying it for around two weeks. During that time, impurities are removed and it becomes a tasteless, odorless white object. In its dry state, the dietary fibers agarose and agaropectin account for 80% to 90% of its composition. This makes kanten one of the richest foods in dietary fiber. Kanten used to be one of Japan's major exports. In the early 1880s, the German physician Robert Koch successfully isolated and grew the tuberculosis bacteria in pure culture using kanten as the gelling agent on agar plates. Following that, the Scottish physician Alexander Fleming discovered the world's first antibiotic, penicillin, using the same medium. They both received the Nobel Prize for these great achievements. Kanten being used as a gelling agent in an experiment. (© Pixta) 'This is why, overseas, it is known more as a culture medium for bacterial research than as a food product,' states Tochikubo Osamu, a doctor of internal medicine and professor emeritus at Yokohama City University. He is a leading researcher of the health benefits of kanten . 'It's amazing to think that kanten , which has contributed so much to the development of modern medicine, originated from Japan and in the Edo period as well.' Tochikubo poses with uncooked bōkanten . (© ) 'What makes kanten distinctive is how rich it is in dietary fiber and its special properties,' he continues. 'Dietary fiber has a mesh-like structure, and in the case of kanten , it is extremely fine, so it can hold a hundred times its weight in water. Konnyaku , or konjac jelly, by the way, can hold around thirty times as much.' The capabilities of these impressive water-retaining properties are revealed once in the intestine. 'It creates a feeling of fullness, so it can help with dieting and prevent overeating. Kanten isn't absorbed in the intestines and has almost no calories itself. No matter how much you eat, it passes through with the stools, so there is no worry of gaining weight.' The increase in regular bowel movements and metabolism, as well as the promoted excretion of waste products, means it helps with creating healthy skin, too. A Kanten Diet Boom In 2004, Tochikubo conducted clinical experiments to investigate the effect of kanten on lifestyle-related diseases. A set of 76 diabetic patients were randomly divided into two groups, and keeping all other dietary conditions the same, one of the groups was asked to eat a little less than 200 grams of reconstituted kanten (equivalent to two grams of powdered kanten ) every evening before dinner. The changes after three months showed that the kanten -eating group's weight, body fat, blood sugar (Hemoglobin A1c), total cholesterol, and other values had improved compared to the other group. The results of this experiment were published in a co-authored paper, leading to a kanten diet boom in 2005. Says Tochikubo: 'The dietary fiber in gelatinous kanten slows the absorption of sugar in the intestines and suppresses sudden rises in blood sugar levels, which can lead to prevention and improvement of diabetes. It also promotes adsorption and excretion of some bile acids, which is effective against dyslipidemia. Subsequent research has shown that kanten is also effective against arteriosclerosis and high blood pressure.' Tochikubo has been recommending dietary therapy using kanten to his patients for more than 30 years, and has achieved good treatment results. Now 82 years of age, he still maintains his own health by eating kanten every day. Kanten after it has been dissolved in water and then set. (© Pixta) The doctor describes his own regimen as follows. 'I boil and dissolve 2 grams of powdered kanten in 200 milliliters of water, leave it to set, and then eat it thirty minutes before dinner, with around 150 milliliters of soy milk poured over it. It's delicious with a little honey added too.' The addition of the soy milk is to make up for the lack of protein in the kanten . 'I consciously add the soy milk as it contains a good balance of essential amino acids, which can't be produced by the body. Soybeans are high in isoflavones, which act in a similar way to women's hormones, so it is particularly recommended for women suffering from menopausal symptoms. But cow's milk is fine too.' Cooking with Kanten Kanten dissolves at temperatures over 90°C, so it needs to be heated thoroughly to prepare it for ingestion. Kanten being brought to the boil to dissolve it. (© Pixta) It sets firmly once it has cooled to around 35°C to 40°C. You can create a fluffy texture by adjusting the amount used. Unlike jelly made from gelatin, this sets at room temperature and does not melt unless reheated. Keeping these characteristics in mind, let's try making some standard kanten recipes. Points to Remember The amount needed for the kanten to set: 1 bōkanten stick (8 grams) = 8 grams of itokanten threads = 2 teaspoons of konakanten powder (4 grams) to set: 1 stick (8 grams) = 8 grams of threads = 2 teaspoons of powder (4 grams) A total of 400 to 600 millimeters of water is appropriate for one bōkanten stick. (Less water gives a firm set, while more makes it softer. Adjust to your taste.) stick. (Less water gives a firm set, while more makes it softer. Adjust to your taste.) Give the bōkanten or itokanten a quick rinse and then rehydrate it by soaking in water for 10 to 30 minutes. Break up the stick before using it. or a quick rinse and then rehydrate it by soaking in water for 10 to 30 minutes. Break up the stick before using it. If you add a cold ingredient, the mix will set straight away, so heat those ingredients until lukewarm before adding them. For acidic ingredients, remove the pan from the heat and allow the kanten mix to cool before adding them as they are less likely to set if boiled together. ● Milk Kanten Jelly This is a classic kanten dessert! It is popular to add canned fruit such as mandarin oranges. Milk kanten jelly with mandarin oranges. (© Pixta) Ingredients (makes 2–3 servings) 1/2 bōkanten (or 4 grams itokanten , or 1 teaspoon konakanten ) (or 4 grams , or 1 teaspoon ) 200ml water 200ml lukewarm milk 3 tablespoons sugar Preparation Rehydrate the stick or thread kanten in water (extra to what is listed in the ingredients) and then squeeze the water out. Break the stick into pieces. For powdered kanten, start from step 2. Put the kanten in a pan with the measured water and cook on medium heat. Bring it to the boil and simmer for around 2 minutes while mixing well to dissolve the kanten . Add the milk and lower the heat. Stir in the sugar; once it is dissolved, turn off the heat. Strain the mix through a sieve and pour into a mold that has been wetted with water. Let it cool (add fruit at this point as desired), and then move it to the refrigerator to set. * If you make this without using milk and sugar, it becomes a kanten dessert known as mitsumame , which is cubes of kanten , served with fruit, red beans, and shiratama rice flour dumplings. ● Murakumo-yose The name of this dessert, literally 'a cluster of clouds,' comes from the way the egg poured into the dashi stock, creating a cloud-like appearance. Depending on the region, this dessert is also known as tamago (egg) kanten or bekkō ('tortoiseshell'). This is a good dish for in hot weather or when you have little appetite, as it is easy to eat. Murakumo-yose (© Pixta) Ingredients (makes 2-3 servings) 1/2 bōkanten (or 4 grams itokanten , or 1 teaspoon konakanten ) (or 4 grams , or 1 teaspoon ) 200 ml dashi stock stock 1 egg, beaten 1 tablespoon soy sauce 1 teaspoon mirin Preparation Rehydrate the stick or thread kanten in water (extra to what is listed in the ingredients) and then squeeze the water out. Break the stick into pieces. For powdered kanten, start from step 2. Put the kanten and dashi stock into a pan and cook on medium heat. Bring it to the boil and simmer for around 2 minutes while mixing well to dissolve the kanten . Then add the soy sauce and mirin . In a thin stream, pour the beaten egg into the stirred mixture from Step 2. As the egg begins to set, stop the heat. Pour the whole mixture into a mold that has been wetted with water. Let it cool and then move it to the refrigerator to set. ● Kanten Miso Soup Simply add kanten to regular miso soup to experience a new texture! Be sure to eat it before it cools and hardens. Kanten miso soup (© Pixta) Ingredients (makes 2 servings) 4 grams itokanten (or 1/2 bōkanten ) (or 1/2 ) 2 servings of miso soup Preparation Rehydrate the kanten in water (extra to what is listed in the ingredients) and then squeeze the water out. Break the stick into pieces. Place the kanten in a bowl and pour hot miso soup over it. Kanten can be found in the dried food section at all supermarkets in Japan, and at many Asian food outlets overseas. Able to be stored long-term, it is convenient to keep on hand for use whenever you want. Why not try adding kanten to your daily diet? Recipe supervision: Tochikubo Osamu (professor emeritus at Yokohama City University, chair of the NPO Citizen Health and Longevity Network Lab) (Originally published in Japanese. Reporting and text by . Banner photo: Bōkanten and desserts made using kanten . © Pixta.)
Glasgow Times
06-06-2025
- Health
- Glasgow Times
D-Day landings boosted by import of ‘wonder drug' to Britain, archives reveal
Production of the antibiotic penicillin had struggled to take hold at a large scale in Britain, despite being discovered in 1928 in London by Sir Alexander Fleming. Attempts to produce substantial quantities of medicine from the bacteria-killing mould had not been achieved by the start of the Second World War. Then prime minister Sir Winston Churchill became increasingly frustrated that Britain had not been able to produce enough penicillin in the preparations for the Normandy landings in 1944. Official papers released by the National Archive – containing handwritten notes by Sir Winston – highlight efforts to boost quantities of the antibiotic, with Britain eventually forced to import it from America. The documents were released ahead of the 81st anniversary of D-Day, the Allied invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944. Official papers highlight the efforts to boost quantities of penicillin (The National Archives/PA) In one report on February 19, after the issue had been raised in the House of Commons, Sir Winston scrawled in red ink on a Ministry of Supply report noting the Americans were producing greater quantities: 'I am sorry we can't produce more.' On another paper, he complained: 'Your report on penicillin showing that we are only to get about one tenth of the expected output this year, is very disappointing.' Elsewhere in the same file he instructs: 'Let me have proposals for a more abundant supply from Great Britain.' With preparations for D-Day ramped up, efforts to deliver enough American-made penicillin for frontline military personnel soon became a matter of urgency. Decisions needed to be made on the quantities of antibiotic imported, how much to administer to individual patients, and how to get medical staff trained in time. Most British doctors did not know how to issue penicillin – until this point, doctors had nothing available to treat infections like pneumonia and many people died of blood poisoning after minor injuries because no drug existed that could cure them. Royal Navy D-Day veteran John Dennett, 101, at the British Normandy Memorial in Ver-sur-Mer to mark the 81st anniversary of the landings (Gareth Fuller/PA) Early in January 1944, Prof FR Fraser, the Ministry of Health's adviser on the organisation of wartime hospitals, wrote that 50,000-100,000 wounded could be expected from the Second Front. He proposed the Emergency Medical Services might need as many as five billion units of penicillin per month for this. Further documents show discussions on whether the antibiotic should be supplied as calcium or sodium salts, or in tablet form. Ultimately, it was agreed powdered calcium salts would be issued for superficial wounds and sodium salts for use in deep wounds. On May 24 1944, less than a fortnight before D-Day, Prof Fraser reported: 'Sufficient supplies of penicillin are now available for the treatment of battle casualties in EMS hospitals, but not for ordinary civilian patients.' Plans were made for casualties from the frontline in France to be brought back to coastal hospitals in Britain for treatment. A week before D-Day, on May 30 1944, hospitals were instructed to treat battlefield patients en route: 'In an endeavour to prevent the development of gas gangrene and sepsis in wounds the War Office have arranged for the treatment of selected cases by penicillin to be commenced as soon after injury as possible.' Military reenactors watch the sunrise over Gold Beach in Arromanches-les-Bains, Normandy, on the 81st anniversary of the D-Day landings (Gareth Fuller/PA) Injections of penicillin were to be given to them at intervals of not more than five hours and patients would be wearing a yellow label with the letters 'PEN'. The time and size of penicillin doses should be written on it, they were told. Dr Jessamy Carlson, modern records specialist at the National Archives, said: 'File MH 76/184 gives a glimpse into the extraordinary levels of preparation undertaken in advance of the D-Day landings. 'Only six weeks before, penicillin is just reaching our shores in quantities which will allow it to play a major role in improving the outcomes for service personnel wounded in action.' As Allied forces made inroads into Europe, restrictions on the use of penicillin for civilians began to relax, but only in special cases. In July 1944, Ronald Christie, professor of medicine, wrote to Prof Fraser to tell him: 'The War Office approves of American penicillin being used for medical conditions in service patients and for air raid casualties among civilians.' On the home front, demand for the new 'wonder' drug began to increase, according the National Archives. It was decided that penicillin for civilians should only be supplied to larger hospitals where the staff had been properly trained to administer it. Only in 1946 did it become fully available for the general public.
Telegraph
06-06-2025
- Health
- Telegraph
Churchill frustrated he had to buy penicillin from US ahead of D-Day
Sir Winston Churchill was frustrated that he was forced to buy penicillin from the United States ahead of D-Day, official papers have revealed. Production of the 'wonder drug' had struggled to take hold on a large scale in Britain, despite it having been discovered in London by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928. Attempts to produce substantial quantities of medicine from the bacteria-killing mould had not been achieved by the start of the Second World War. Churchill became increasingly frustrated that Britain had not been able to produce enough penicillin during preparations for the Normandy landings in 1944. Official papers released by the National Archive, containing handwritten notes by Sir Winston, highlight efforts to boost quantities of the antibiotic, with Britain eventually forced to import it from America. The documents were released ahead of the 81st anniversary of D-Day, the Allied invasion of Normandy on June 6 1944. In one report on Feb 19 that year, after the problem had been raised in the Commons, Sir Winston scrawled in red ink on a Ministry of Supply report noting the Americans were producing greater quantities: 'I am sorry we can't produce more.' On another paper, he complained: 'Your report on penicillin, showing that we are only to get about one tenth of the expected output this year, is very disappointing.' Elsewhere in the same file he instructs: 'Let me have proposals for a more abundant supply from Great Britain.' With preparations for D-Day ramped up, efforts to deliver enough American-made penicillin for frontline military personnel soon became a matter of urgency. Decisions needed to be made on the quantities of antibiotic imported, how much to administer to individual patients, and how to get medical staff trained in time. Most British doctors did not know how to issue penicillin – until this point, doctors had nothing available to treat infections like pneumonia, and many people died of blood poisoning after minor injuries because no drug existed that could cure them. Early in January 1944, Prof FR Fraser, the Ministry of Health's adviser on the organisation of wartime hospitals, wrote that 50,000-100,000 wounded could be expected from the second front. He suggested that the Emergency Medical Services might need as many as five billion units of penicillin per month for this. Further documents show discussions on whether the antibiotic should be supplied as calcium or sodium salts, or in tablet form. Ultimately, it was agreed that powdered calcium salts would be issued for superficial wounds and sodium salts for use in deeper ones. On May 24 1944, less than a fortnight before D-Day, Prof Fraser reported: 'Sufficient supplies of penicillin are now available for the treatment of battle casualties in EMS hospitals, but not for ordinary civilian patients.' Plans were made for casualties from the frontline in France to be brought back to coastal hospitals in Britain for treatment. On May 30 1944, a week before D-Day, hospitals were instructed to treat battlefield patients en route. The instructions said: 'In an endeavour to prevent the development of gas gangrene and sepsis in wounds, the War Office have arranged for the treatment of selected cases by penicillin to be commenced as soon after injury as possible.' Injections of penicillin were to be given to them at intervals of not more than five hours and patients would be wearing a yellow label with the letters 'PEN'. The time and size of penicillin doses should be written on it, they were told. Dr Jessamy Carlson, a modern records specialist at the National Archives, said: 'File MH 76/184 gives a glimpse into the extraordinary levels of preparation undertaken in advance of the D-Day landings. 'Only six weeks before, penicillin is just reaching our shores in quantities which will allow it to play a major role in improving the outcomes for service personnel wounded in action.' As Allied forces made inroads into Europe, restrictions on the use of penicillin for civilians began to be relaxed – but only in special cases. In July 1944, Ronald Christie, a professor of medicine, wrote to Prof Fraser to tell him: 'The War Office approves of American penicillin being used for medical conditions in service patients and for air raid casualties among civilians.' On the home front, demand for the new wonder drug began to increase, according the National Archives. It was decided that penicillin for civilians should only be supplied to larger hospitals where staff had been properly trained to administer it. It became fully available to the general public in 1946.
Powys County Times
06-06-2025
- Health
- Powys County Times
D-Day landings boosted by import of ‘wonder drug' to Britain, archives reveal
The D-Day landings were boosted by the import from America of a 'wonder drug', unearthed documents reveal. Production of the antibiotic penicillin had struggled to take hold at a large scale in Britain, despite being discovered in 1928 in London by Sir Alexander Fleming. Attempts to produce substantial quantities of medicine from the bacteria-killing mould had not been achieved by the start of the Second World War. Then prime minister Sir Winston Churchill became increasingly frustrated that Britain had not been able to produce enough penicillin in the preparations for the Normandy landings in 1944. Official papers released by the National Archive – containing handwritten notes by Sir Winston – highlight efforts to boost quantities of the antibiotic, with Britain eventually forced to import it from America. The documents were released ahead of the 81st anniversary of D-Day, the Allied invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944. In one report on February 19, after the issue had been raised in the House of Commons, Sir Winston scrawled in red ink on a Ministry of Supply report noting the Americans were producing greater quantities: 'I am sorry we can't produce more.' On another paper, he complained: 'Your report on penicillin showing that we are only to get about one tenth of the expected output this year, is very disappointing.' Elsewhere in the same file he instructs: 'Let me have proposals for a more abundant supply from Great Britain.' With preparations for D-Day ramped up, efforts to deliver enough American-made penicillin for frontline military personnel soon became a matter of urgency. Decisions needed to be made on the quantities of antibiotic imported, how much to administer to individual patients, and how to get medical staff trained in time. Most British doctors did not know how to issue penicillin – until this point, doctors had nothing available to treat infections like pneumonia and many people died of blood poisoning after minor injuries because no drug existed that could cure them. Early in January 1944, Prof FR Fraser, the Ministry of Health's adviser on the organisation of wartime hospitals, wrote that 50,000-100,000 wounded could be expected from the Second Front. He proposed the Emergency Medical Services might need as many as five billion units of penicillin per month for this. Further documents show discussions on whether the antibiotic should be supplied as calcium or sodium salts, or in tablet form. Ultimately, it was agreed powdered calcium salts would be issued for superficial wounds and sodium salts for use in deep wounds. On May 24 1944, less than a fortnight before D-Day, Prof Fraser reported: 'Sufficient supplies of penicillin are now available for the treatment of battle casualties in EMS hospitals, but not for ordinary civilian patients.' Plans were made for casualties from the frontline in France to be brought back to coastal hospitals in Britain for treatment. A week before D-Day, on May 30 1944, hospitals were instructed to treat battlefield patients en route: 'In an endeavour to prevent the development of gas gangrene and sepsis in wounds the War Office have arranged for the treatment of selected cases by penicillin to be commenced as soon after injury as possible.' Injections of penicillin were to be given to them at intervals of not more than five hours and patients would be wearing a yellow label with the letters 'PEN'. The time and size of penicillin doses should be written on it, they were told. Dr Jessamy Carlson, modern records specialist at the National Archives, said: 'File MH 76/184 gives a glimpse into the extraordinary levels of preparation undertaken in advance of the D-Day landings. 'Only six weeks before, penicillin is just reaching our shores in quantities which will allow it to play a major role in improving the outcomes for service personnel wounded in action.' As Allied forces made inroads into Europe, restrictions on the use of penicillin for civilians began to relax, but only in special cases. In July 1944, Ronald Christie, professor of medicine, wrote to Prof Fraser to tell him: 'The War Office approves of American penicillin being used for medical conditions in service patients and for air raid casualties among civilians.' On the home front, demand for the new 'wonder' drug began to increase, according the National Archives. It was decided that penicillin for civilians should only be supplied to larger hospitals where the staff had been properly trained to administer it.
Yahoo
06-06-2025
- Health
- Yahoo
Churchill documents reveal D-Day landings boosted by import of ‘wonder drug' from America
Newly unearthed documents have revealed that the D-Day landings received a boost from the import of a "wonder drug" from America. Despite its discovery in London in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming, large-scale production of the antibiotic penicillin had struggled to take hold in Britain. Attempts to produce substantial quantities of medicine from the bacteria-killing mould had not been achieved by the start of the Second World War. Then prime minister Sir Winston Churchill became increasingly frustrated that Britain had not been able to produce enough penicillin in the preparations for the Normandy landings in 1944. Official papers released by the National Archive – containing handwritten notes by Sir Winston – highlight efforts to boost quantities of the antibiotic, with Britain eventually forced to import it from America. The documents were released ahead of the 81st anniversary of D-Day, the Allied invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944. In one report on February 19, after the issue had been raised in the House of Commons, Sir Winston scrawled in red ink on a Ministry of Supply report noting the Americans were producing greater quantities: 'I am sorry we can't produce more.' On another paper, he complained: 'Your report on penicillin showing that we are only to get about one tenth of the expected output this year, is very disappointing.' Elsewhere in the same file he instructs: 'Let me have proposals for a more abundant supply from Great Britain.' With preparations for D-Day ramped up, efforts to deliver enough American-made penicillin for frontline military personnel soon became a matter of urgency. Decisions needed to be made on the quantities of antibiotic imported, how much to administer to individual patients, and how to get medical staff trained in time. Most British doctors did not know how to issue penicillin – until this point, doctors had nothing available to treat infections like pneumonia and many people died of blood poisoning after minor injuries because no drug existed that could cure them. Early in January 1944, Prof FR Fraser, the Ministry of Health's adviser on the organisation of wartime hospitals, wrote that 50,000-100,000 wounded could be expected from the Second Front. He proposed the Emergency Medical Services might need as many as five billion units of penicillin per month for this. Further documents show discussions on whether the antibiotic should be supplied as calcium or sodium salts, or in tablet form. Ultimately, it was agreed powdered calcium salts would be issued for superficial wounds and sodium salts for use in deep wounds. On May 24 1944, less than a fortnight before D-Day, Prof Fraser reported: 'Sufficient supplies of penicillin are now available for the treatment of battle casualties in EMS hospitals, but not for ordinary civilian patients.' Plans were made for casualties from the frontline in France to be brought back to coastal hospitals in Britain for treatment. A week before D-Day, on May 30 1944, hospitals were instructed to treat battlefield patients en route: 'In an endeavour to prevent the development of gas gangrene and sepsis in wounds the War Office have arranged for the treatment of selected cases by penicillin to be commenced as soon after injury as possible.' Injections of penicillin were to be given to them at intervals of not more than five hours and patients would be wearing a yellow label with the letters 'PEN'. The time and size of penicillin doses should be written on it, they were told. Dr Jessamy Carlson, modern records specialist at the National Archives, said: 'File MH 76/184 gives a glimpse into the extraordinary levels of preparation undertaken in advance of the D-Day landings. 'Only six weeks before, penicillin is just reaching our shores in quantities which will allow it to play a major role in improving the outcomes for service personnel wounded in action.' As Allied forces made inroads into Europe, restrictions on the use of penicillin for civilians began to relax, but only in special cases. In July 1944, Ronald Christie, professor of medicine, wrote to Prof Fraser to tell him: 'The War Office approves of American penicillin being used for medical conditions in service patients and for air raid casualties among civilians.' On the home front, demand for the new 'wonder' drug began to increase, according the National Archives. It was decided that penicillin for civilians should only be supplied to larger hospitals where the staff had been properly trained to administer it. Only in 1946 did it become fully available for the general public.
