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News18
3 days ago
- Business
- News18
When Did Pensions Begin Globally And What Was The First Pension Amount In India?
Pension is the most critical financial support for senior citizens. After serving the country or state for a long time, every retired employee receives a fixed amount each month to help with their living expenses. Nowadays, not only government employees but also individuals working in private companies rely on their pensions after retirement. The pension system in India was introduced during the British period. The history of pensions is more than 2,000 years old. According to historians, the pension system is first mentioned in the Roman Empire, initiated by Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BC-14 AD). At that time, this system was started for soldiers. Soldiers who served for a long time in the Roman army were given land or money upon retirement, enabling them to live a respectable life even after their service ended. Within a few years, Indian soldiers and civil servants also began receiving pensions. Historians believe that the first pensions were given to British military officers, many of whom are still renowned today, such as Lord Cornwallis. It is not recorded who the first Indian pensioner was, but it is likely that one of the first individuals to retire from service was a sepoy or havildar who received a pension during British rule. According to media reports, an ordinary soldier received a pension of Rs 4 to 7 per month, while a British officer received Rs 100 to 200 per month. Today these amounts seem very small, but at that time, Rs 1 could cover the expenses of an entire family for a month. Later, in 1889, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced the first public pension for senior citizens over 70 years of age, transforming the pension from an honour to a right and forming the foundation of social security systems. The history of pensions in India dates back to the British rule. The East India Company had made provisions for its officers and soldiers to receive some income upon retirement, thus giving rise to the concept of pensions out of necessity. For government employees, pensions were formally introduced in 1881. At that time, this amount was considered the minimum required for a retired person to live without worrying about food, water, or shelter.
The Hindu
4 days ago
- Politics
- The Hindu
Temples of social justice
Recently, a political controversy erupted in Tamil Nadu on the issue of diverting temple funds for building colleges. Beyond the political debates, the issue throws light on a unique social justice model around the regulation of secular practices associated with religion. This model, predominantly developed in the erstwhile Madras Presidency, draws strength from a 200-year-old legislative framework which continues till date. It has gained more acceptance in south India. As elections approach in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, clarity on the issue will help diffuse attempts to polarise voters around it. Religious endowments law Through the Religious Endowment and Escheats Regulation 1817, the East India Company set up the earliest legislative architecture around regulation of religious endowments. When the British Crown assumed direct control over Indian territories in 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation stating that the sovereign would restrict interference in religious affairs. This was necessary as there was concern about losing face from the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny, which was triggered by religious issues. However, the withdrawal of the British government from religious affairs was not complete. In fact, in the Madras Presidency, various British officials argued for continued oversight of religious endowments. Finally, the British government settled for a balanced approach: the sovereign would not interfere with practices that were essentially religious, such as rituals, but would exercise control over the lands and secular aspects of the religious endowments. The idea of the government supervising religious institutions came to be crystallised when the Justice Party was elected in 1920. One of the earliest legislative interventions by the Justicites was Bill No. 12 of 1922: Hindu Religious Endowments Act. When it was introduced in the Madras Legislative Council, it faced opposition, mainly due to the provision in the law that allowed surplus temple funds to be diverted for other purposes. The nub of the issue was whether funds provided to a temple could be used for secular purposes. The matter was debated and settled in 1925, when the law was enacted. Since then, every revised version of the plenary law, including the current law — The Tamil Nadu Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act, 1959 — has retained the provision of surplus funds. Also read | Activist alleges 'criminal misappropriation' of temple funds by T.N. HR&CE Dept, Madras High Court calls for response Section 36 of the 1959 Act permits the trustees of religious institutions to appropriate any surplus funds for any purposes listed under the law, with the prior sanction of the Commissioner. 'Surplus' means any amount remaining after adequate provisions have been made for the maintenance of the temple and training of its officials. The Act also empowers the Joint Commissioner or the Deputy Commissioner to appropriate funds in cases where the original purpose has become impossible to fulfil. Endowments to temples have a long and rich history. Temples received lavish donations from the sovereign rulers from as far back as in 970 AD, when the Chola empire was at its peak. Historian Anirudh Kanisetti writes that Sembiyan Mahadevi, a Chola queen, made strategic donations of land and kind to temples. The practice continued during the Vijayanagara kingdom. Temples were not just places of worship; they were socio-cultural hubs and were also used for educational purposes. This is confirmed by the inscriptions on temple walls and the spacious mandapams (pillared halls) which were used to hold educational or cultural events. So the original intent argument would also support the theory of utilising temple resources for educational purposes. The 1959 Act has been tested and upheld by constitutional courts. Among the permissible uses of surplus funds under the 1959 Act is the establishment and maintenance of universities or colleges (Section 66). These educational institutions are also required to make available the study of the Hindu religion or Hindu temple architecture. Seen within this framework, building colleges from temple funds is not only legal, but a logical extension of these provisions. Social justice legacy The controversy around the use of temple funds cannot be restricted to discussing legal propositions, however; it also carries ideological and sociopolitical significance. In the pre-colonial era, the motivation for the rulers to support large-scale endowments was that the temples acted as channels through which State resources could be allotted for important welfare projects. Through colonial rule, the British East India Company and the Crown viewed sovereign involvement in the management of temple affairs as necessary for reasons of revenue and maintenance of local control. Over the last century, the Self-Respect Movement, which emerged from the Madras Presidency, viewed the regulation of temples and oversight of their resources as a critical feature of anti-caste reforms. Without this, there would have been no temple entry legislation in 1936 and 1947. Today, Tamil Nadu and Kerala are among the few States where governments have appointed priests from backward classes after a prolonged legal struggle. Ultimately, any argument against government control of temple affairs would be striking at the root of social justice. The role of the government in ensuring that surplus funds are appropriated in a lawful manner is settled. Any reversal of this would only result in a set back of the long legacy of social justice and religious reforms that south India has pioneered.
India.com
4 days ago
- General
- India.com
When did pensions begin worldwide? How much did Indians receive back then? The numbers will shock you!
A pension is one of the most important factors for senior citizens. Every retired person receives a fixed payment each month that helps support their living expenses. Today, it's not only government employees but also those employed in a private corporation who depend on their pension when retiring. But have you ever wondered how much pension Indians received during the British rule? Pensions have a history of more than 2,000 years. In the 1770s, the practice of granting pensions began in Europe with various European dignitaries. Within a few years, pensions were awarded to Indian sepoys and civil servants. Historians suggest that the first pensions were issued to British military officers, many of whom are still widely recognized, such as Lord Cornwallis. It has not been recorded who the first Indian pensioner was, but more than likely, a sepoy or havildar on retiring from service was the first individual to receive a pension. According to the media reports, an ordinary sepoy was entitled to a pension of 4 to 7 rupees per month, while a British officer received a pension of 100 to 200 rupees per month; today, these amounts are comically small, but back then, Re 1 could sustain an entire family for a month. Later, in 1889, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced the first public pension for elderly people over 70 years old, making pensions go from being an honor to a right, and this became the basis for social security systems worldwide. The history of pensions in India goes back to the era of British rule. The East India Company made provision for its officers and soldiers to receive some income on retirement, so the concept of pension was very much born out of necessity. For government employees, pensions are said to have been formally introduced in 1881. The amount was, during the years following that date, at least socially recognized to be enough to provide a modicum of income to allow a retiree to live without worry about food, water, or shelter.
West Australian
4 days ago
- West Australian
Kolkata banyan tree is the world's biggest
There is just one moment of weakness when I wonder if it's worth the heat. We have climbed down from our air-conditioned bus, with its endless water bottles and sanitiser, and melted into Kolkata's summer, pre-monsoon heat. I haven't even bothered to look at the official temperature, as I just have to tell you that it is very hot and humid. I just have to tell you that I have chosen a shirt that doesn't look much different when wet (unlike those light blue shirts that quickly look like you've just fallen into a swimming pool). I just have to tell you that I did my old trick (taught to me by Aboriginal bushmen) of loading up on tea at breakfast, and will now only sip on room temperature water. And so, our little group walks with local guide Vikal to the Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden's big attraction, a Ficus benghalensis tree. This banyan tree is a living heritage site. It is huge. In fact, it is so big that there is no longer a central trunk — this living tree is a conglomerate of more than 1000 aerial roots. And, according to its 1989 entry in the Guinness Book Of World Records, it is the biggest tree specimen in the world, as judged by canopy coverage. The tree, which is more than 250 years old, is a forest in itself. The paved path around it, outside the wall and metal fence protecting it, is a 330m circle. Inside this, a man is working on supporting thin, new aerial roots, with bamboo props tied with jute string. It strikes me it is like a giant bonsai. In 1925, the main trunk was removed to keep the remainder of the tree healthy. It had become infected with a nasty and potentially fatal fungi, after being damaged by two cyclones. In October 2024, the high winds and torrential rain of cyclonic storm Dana hit the botanical garden, in Shibpur, which is one of the biggest and oldest in South Asia, uprooting more than 2000 trees. It left two empty patches in the giant banyan — but nature, of course, abhors a void, and aerial roots will continue to fill these. The banyan continues to draw visitors — perhaps more than the rest of the collection of exotic plants from five continents. There are more than 14,000 plants representing 1300 species. It is no secret that it suffers from a lack of money — it is reported that there is no specific funding for the garden; it is in a pool with many others. But the 110ha gardens also give insight into a different, less manicured, more natural way of presenting a botanical garden. The botanical garden isn't actually in Kolkata — it is in its twin city, Howrah, the other side of the River Ganges. It was originally called The Royal Botanic Garden, and founded in 1786 by the East India Company, on the advice of Colonel Kyd, who became its first superintendent. It was renamed the Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden in 2009. Bose was a son of Kolkata, and one of whom Bengalis are very proud. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, who died in 1937, was a polymath scientist who was a pioneer in the investigation of microwave optics and, more relevantly, made significant contributions to botany. He is also considered to be the father of Bengali science fiction. The banyan tree in Kolkata's botanical gardens is an old friend. I have visited it before and watched the protective wall and fence around it grow into a bigger and bigger circle. I hope I will visit it again one day. It is always worth any amount of heat. Of course.
Indian Express
5 days ago
- General
- Indian Express
Knowledge Nugget: Why Mangal Pandey's role in revolt of 1857 matters for your UPSC exam
Take a look at the essential concepts, terms, quotes, or phenomena every day and brush up on your knowledge. Here's your knowledge nugget on Mangal Pandey and other prominent leaders' contributions to the Revolt of 1857. (Relevance: UPSC has asked questions on the Revolt of 1857 in both Prelims and Mains. Also, the contribution of Mangal Pandey holds immense significance in the outbreak of the revolt, making it an important topic for your UPSC exam.) On March 29, 1857, Mangal Pandey fired a shot at the Sergeant Major of his regiment at Barrackpore near Kolkata, triggering a great event in the history of Modern India — the Revolt of 1857, or the Sepoy Mutiny, or the First War of Indian Independence. With it ended the rule of the East India Company over India with Queen Victoria's Proclamation of 1858. It changed the British system of colonial rule in India with the enactment of the Government of India Act 1858 which appointed a Viceroy as the Crown representative in India in place of the Governor General of India. Lord Canning became the First viceroy under this new system. 1. Mangal Pandey was born on July 19, 1827, in Nagwa village in Ballia district in a Bhumihar Brahmin family. He joined the East India Company's army at the age of 22 as a soldier in the 6th company of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry. 2. He refused to use the newly introduced Enfield rifle. It was believed that the new Enfield Pattern 1853 rifle-musket issued to the sepoys of the East India Company came with a cartridge dipped in beef and pork fat, which made it anathema to both Hindu and Muslim sepoys, who had to bite open the cartridge to load the weapon. 3. On March 29, 1857, Pandey mutinied and fired at his Senior Sergeant Major. He was overpowered and hanged on April 8, 1857, by the order of a Court Martial at Lal Bagan in Barrackpore. His regiment was disbanded, like the 19th infantry at Behrampore, for showing resentment. 4. Mangal Pandey was hanged to death by the Company on April 8. He belonged to the kingdom of Awadh, which had been treacherously annexed by Lord Dalhousie in 1856 on the grounds of misgovernance. It was not under the Doctrine of Lapse introduced by Dalhousie to annex other regions. It was introduced by Lord Dalhousie during his time as the Governor-General of India (1848–56). According to this doctrine, the adopted heir to the throne was not allowed to acquire the state, and the state automatically 'lapsed' into British dominion if the ruler died without any natural, biological heir. The territories of Satara (1848), Punjab (1849), Sambalpur (1850), and Jhansi and Nagpur (1854) were annexed under it. Bahadur Shah Zafar II was the Delhi emperor from 1836 to 1857. He was the second son of and became the successor to his father, Akbar II. After the failure of the Revolt of 1857, he was exiled to Rangoon in British-controlled Burma, and the Red Fort was illegally captured by the British on September 19, 1857. He lived in prison till his death in 1862. 5. Notably, Awadh was a region that supplied large numbers of soldiers of war to the Company's army. There were 75,000 soldiers from Awadh, and almost every agricultural family in the kingdom had a representative in the army. Whatever happened in Awadh was of immediate concern to the Sepoy. 6. The deposition of the Nawab and the confiscation of the villages of taluqdars during the land revenue settlement of 1856 caused outrage. Some 14,000 petitions were received from the Sepoys about the hardships they faced on account of the revenue system. Mangal Pandey represented the discontent that the misery of British rule had brought upon peasant families. 7. Next, the soldiers of the 7th Awadh Regiment rose in defiance, and they also met the same fate. After this, the incidents of disobedience, incendiarism, and arson were reported from the army cantonments in Ambala, Lucknow, and Meerut, until finally, the Meerut sepoys started the revolt on 10 May. 8. The marching band of sepoys from Meerut reached the Red Fort and appealed to Bahadur Shah II, the elderly Mughal emperor who was a pensioner of the East India Company, to become their leader to provide legitimacy to their cause. After much persuasion, he yielded and was proclaimed Shah-en-shah-i-Hindustan. Leaders across the northern region joined the revolt to provide leadership. Here are some of the prominent leaders that you shouldn't miss. 1. Nana Sahib: He was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, the last Maratha peshwa (ruler), who assumed the leadership from Kanpur. Lord Dalhousie has refused the extension of the pension of his adoptive father to him, and the threat from sepoys made him join the revolt. He provided a strong front; however, in 1859, he was driven into the Nepal hills, where he is thought to have died. 2. Begum Hazrat Mahal: Begum, one of the younger queens of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, was a freedom fighter who made major contributions to the revolt of 1857. She took command of the revolt from Lucknow. She took charge of the affairs of the state after the British annexed it in 1856, exiling the nawab, and leaving the kingdom without a leader, in a chaotic mess. She crowned her son, Birjis Qadr, as the royal heir of Awadh. Ultimately, she escaped to Nepal with her son and a clutch of followers under adverse circumstances in 1859. She maintained her opposition through 20 years of exile in Nepal, until she died in 1879. 3. Veer Kuwar Singh: At the age of 80, Kuwar Singh was the chief organiser from the Bhojpur region of Bihar against the British East India Company during the revolt. He led the siege of Aarah for eight days. He was a master of guerrilla warfare and was able to elude the British for quite some time. At the battle of Jagdishpur, April 23, 1858, he was able to win back his homeland from the Britishers. He died of injuries, passing on the mantle to his successor and brother Amar Singh II. 4. Rani Laxmibai: Rani Laxmibai, original name Manikarnika, was born in Varanasi, was the leader of the revolt from Jhansi. In 1842, she was married to the Maharaja of Jhansi, Gangadhar Rao Newalkar. The couple adopted a son, Damodar Rao. However, after the death of the Maharaja, the British East India Company refused to recognise his claim to the throne under the Doctrine of Lapse. It became the factor for Rani to join the rebellion. In 1858, General Hugh Rose arrived in Jhansi leading his forces. It is then that Rani Laxmibai decided to take up arms to arms to defend her state. 5. Khan Bahadur Khan: The city of Bareilly was one of the strongholds during the rebellion of 1857 and remained so for nearly a year. Here, the resistance was led by an 82-year-old Khan Bahadur Khan. He put up a strong fight against Sir Colin Campbell, who was then the Commander-in-Chief of the British Army and marching towards Bareilly. In an action that lasted for nearly six hours and nearly cost the renowned war correspondent his life, the British forces were successful in making Khan's force retreat and take over the city. 6. Maulvi Liaqat Ali: He took control of the uprising from Allahabad. He enforced law and order in the city and made Khusro Bagh as his military operational headquarters. In 1872, he was arrested at Bombay Railway Station by British officials and was sentenced to transportation for life to the penal settlement of Andaman. (1) What was/were the object/objects of Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1858)? (UPSC CSE 2014) 1. To disclaim any intention to annex Indian States. 2. To place the Indian administration under the British Crown. 3. To regulate the East India Company's trade with India. Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (2) Consider the following pairs: Which of the following pairs is/are correct? (a) 1 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Source: Remembering Mangal Pandey, and the legacy of the revolt he inspired, Knowledge Nugget: Why is the Revolt of 1857 important for UPSC? ) Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X. 🚨 Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for July 2025. Share your views and suggestions in the comment box or at Khushboo Kumari is a Deputy Copy Editor with The Indian Express. She has done her graduation and post-graduation in History from the University of Delhi. At The Indian Express, she writes for the UPSC section. She holds experience in UPSC-related content development. You can contact her via email: ... Read More
