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National Geographic
05-07-2025
- National Geographic
7 must-visit ancient sites everyone should see
This article was produced by National Geographic Traveller (UK). If you're after must-see sights, the monuments of ancient civilisations are right at the top. And it's not just because their temples, tombs, cities and citadels are superlative feats of archaeology — it's because they're us. They reveal humanity that is different and awe-inspiring yet still relatable. You'll get the most out of these sites in the company of an expert guide (or audio guide) to make sense of what you're seeing and it's wise to pre-purchase tickets online to beat queues and guarantee entry. 1. Pyramids of Giza, Egypt It's the contrast that gets you. On one side is the monumental, 26th-century BCE Great Pyramid of Khufu and its two satellite pyramids in camel-coloured desert. On the other is the urban sprawl of Giza, which is why the Sphinx stares inscrutably at a glorified car park. The trick to visiting the Giza Plateau, on the Nile's west bank outside Cairo, is to pre-book a guide at your hotel. That way you'll be spared hassle from touts and hear 4,000 years of dynastic history told like a soap opera. Unless you're claustrophobic, ensure your ticket includes entry to the Great Pyramid; tickets are bought at the site entrance or online. Arrive for 8am when the site is cool and quieter, then retreat at noon into the new adjacent Grand Egyptian Museum. When visiting the Pyramids of Giza, you should factor in time to see the newly opened Grand Egyptian Museum. Photograph by Grand Egyptian Museum 2. Chichén Itzá, Mexico Roughly 2.5 million travellers a year visit the best-restored site of Maya Mexico; such is the peril of being close to the country's premier tourism resort, Cancún. You may have to queue to enter even with tickets booked online. Yet the biggest tip for a visit to this 800-acre complex of temples, palaces, games courts and the stepped Pyramid of Kukulcán (aka El Castillo) is to really engage with it. Spot swarms of close-knit interlocking figures across most surfaces and marvel at El Castillo, the Maya calendar in physical form, with 365 steps for each day and shadows at the equinoxes which make its stone serpents seem to come alive. Interact with the monuments and a visit becomes less about archaeology and more about the pre-Columbian Mesoamericans who called this place home. It deserves at least half a day. 3. Angkor Wat, Cambodia Everyone tells you dawn is the moment to discover the world's largest religious monument, a 12th-century CE Khmer temple complex, its towers a representation of the centre of Hindu cosmology. The problem is everyone also has the same idea. If you go, choose the West Gate over the classic East Gate. Bear in mind that, though the site itself opens at 5am, it takes 30 minutes from Siem Reap by tuk tuk. Your ticket buys you access to the 150sq mile Angkor Archaeological Park, including Bayon temple (quietest at lunchtime), known for its Buddhist faces, plus the jungle-choked ruins of Ta Prohm temple (visit in the hazy light of late afternoon). They're both over two miles from Angkor Wat, so buy a three-day ticket (it's valid for three entries over ten days) and rent a bike — more fun than a tuk tuk. You should plan in at least three days to explore the sprawling ancient complex of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Photograph by Kui; Getty Images 4. Acropolis, Athens Welcome to the ground zero of Western civilisation. From its hilltop complex in central Athens — the word acropolis means 'high city' — came democracy. The Parthenon here is not just a monumental temple to Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom, it's the Doric-columned template for neoclassical architecture worldwide. Sculptures in the excellent Acropolis Museum date back to the 5th century BCE, which is astonishing. While summer temperatures can be a problem (visit early in the morning or late afternoon to avoid the worst of the heat), the main issue with the Acropolis is it can almost seem too familiar. Book a tour with a local guide like Alternative Athens to understand its 2,500-year history and myths. 5. Pompeii, Italy Most sites feature cold stone, yet Pompeii is personal. Its archaeological park presents a snapshot of everyday life in a middle-ranking Roman city on the Bay of Naples at the moment when it was sealed under Vesuvius's volcanic ash in 79BCE. Near-perfect frescos decorate walls — elegant in those of the elite, bawdy in the brothels. There are carbonised loaves of bread, and the plaster casts of victims clutching jewellery or children nestled into their parents' arms are all-too human. The simple act of crossing streets on stepping stones used by ordinary Pompeiians makes history come alive. Caveats? Don't expect full houses — most buildings are ruined shells — and check online for opening times of houses before a visit. Do expect crowds — Piazza Anfiteatro is calmest of the three site entrances. A final tip: renting an audio guide is recommended to make sense of the ruined city. The ruined city of Pompeii is one of the world's most complete examples of what life in ancient Rome was like. Photograph by Darryl Brooks; Getty Images 6. Petra, Jordan Few ancient sites live up to their promise like the 2,000-year-old Nabataean desert capital. You know what's coming beyond the narrow canyon entrance; haggle for a buggy ride to avoid a walk of almost a mile. Yet to emerge suddenly before the carved columns of the Treasury (al-Khazneh) is to feel like Indiana Jones — probably why the franchise's third film was shot here. Hewn from ruddy rock, the Rose City was abandoned by the 8th century CE and lost to all but the Bedouin. Today, there are five square miles of monuments, palaces and tombs to discover on hiking trails. It's worth taking 800 steps up to ad-Dayr (the Monastery) in late afternoon when its rock glows orange. For adventure, arrive through the 'back door to Petra' — a well-marked four-mile desert trail from Little Petra (two to three hours). Buy a Petra ticket online beforehand. 7. Machu Picchu, Peru Machu Picchu wasn't known to the wider world until 1911 — it was local farmers who directed American explorer Hiram Bingham to Inca ruins in the cloud forest. But was it a mountain citadel or royal palace? How did stonemasons interlock blocks so no paper could slip between the stones? That no one really knows adds to the allure of one of the world's most visually astonishing sites. Positioned to align with the cosmos and engineered with aqueducts and fountains, it seems to grow organically from the Andes – it's quite the sight to take in. Only 1,000 of the 5,600 daily tickets are released on the day itself, so buy well in advance or go with a specialist tour offering transfers and guides. Multi-day options that include the Inca capital Cusco and the surrounding Sacred Valley are a good choice, plus a smart move to acclimatise to altitude if you're hiking to Machu Picchu on the Inca Trail. To subscribe to National Geographic Traveller (UK) magazine click here. (Available in select countries only).
Mint
18-05-2025
- Science
- Mint
A new book takes a deep dive into rubber's living legacy
In the 1770s, Vidya Rajan writes in her book Rubber: The Social and Natural History of an Indispensable Substance, an English engineer called Edward Nairne was believed to have used a piece of rubber to erase pencil marks for the first time. Most likely, he didn't have bits of bread handy, which were then used for this purpose. It proved to be a happy accident, making Nairne a rich man. In the nascent days of his discovery, he sold the first erasers for as much as 3 shillings a piece, equivalent to the income of a daily-wage labourer of his time. Some 250 years later, rubber continues to serve millions around the world, from artists and architects to writers and schoolkids. Even this benign episode has an undercurrent of avarice that has defined rubber trade through the centuries. Starting with the Mesoamericans, from whom Spanish colonialists stole this precious substance, to the atrocities carried out in plantations in the Congo under King Leopold, the history of rubber is fraught with injustices. A trained biologist, Rajan recounts the story of the evolution of latex (from which rubber is made), demystifying the science behind its remarkable versatility, used to make erasers as well as sturdy waterproofing material. Rubber not only made and unmade empires, but will also have a huge impact on the future of the planet. Also read: Book excerpt: An army general looks back on the Indo-Pak conflict of 1948 Edited excerpts from an interview. Is rubber the bloodiest cultivated crop, given its colonial legacy? Any death from exploitation is deplorable. It is not only colonial interests, but also corporate entities, militarised groups and individuals that practice exploitation, for example in mining for 'blood' diamonds or coltan for electronics. Rubber certainly has a terribly bloody and exploitative history. Among crops, cotton, sugar, banana and tobacco are some which have inflicted enormous pain on humans. Many of the abuses remain undocumented because of remote locations, inadequate record keeping or slow communications. Some have been products of colonisation. But others are due to exploitation for profit despite shared ethnicity. The profit motive is usually extractive when natural resources are involved. How do you read Britain's interest in exposing atrocities in the Congo rubber plantations, when they were guilty of horrific imperialistic ambitions in other parts of the world? The eagerness of powerful perpetrators to keep atrocities hidden required truth-telling by vulnerable victims to provide personal statements, and brave witnesses to provide documentation such as photographs. When administrations persuade themselves that they, on balance, provide benefits, they show willingness to overlook injustice to some of the population. This is still happening. And though instant communications and social media may transmit information quickly, a distracted and overwhelmed public often does not react to demand justice. It is public outcry that gets results. Colonial powers, including Britain, persuaded themselves that they were providing benevolent administration, uplifting technology, religious instruction, protecting commercial, educational or medical benefits. Perhaps they turned a blind eye or meted out slaps on the wrist rather than punitive punishment when these atrocities came to light. Regarding the Belgian Congo and Putumayo in the Peruvian Amazon, the truth-tellers went public in Britain, resulting in a public outcry which pressured British politicians to acknowledge and investigate wrongdoing in areas where they had some authority. Charles Goodyear's obsession with rubber led to his ruin. What explains his persistence when the substance didn't have as wide a use as now? Since Charles Goodyear was familiar with some of the uses which were already commercially lucrative (floatation devices, bags, boots, waterproof clothing, hoses), no doubt he could have dreamed up many more. Others were also in the game, so ideas for the use of rubber were not lacking, although automobiles with rubber tyres were not yet in use. Only decades later the automotive tire industry caused rubber's value to skyrocket. So Goodyear's persistence and monomania were truly remarkable, a product of real fascination. But certainly, it is hard to understand his pawning his children's textbooks and leaving his family destitute. His obliviousness to his family's well-being is partly what makes him such an enigmatic and compelling character. India currently ranks at no. 4 in rubber production, globally. How did we get here? British ambition in the late 19th century was to have untrammelled access to rubber. It induced them to purloin rubber trees from Brazil and bring them to their environmentally similar tropical rainforest colonies in southeast Asia. After World War II a wave of decolonisation (from British, Dutch and French colonisation) swept through Asia with several rubber producing countries—India in 1947, Indonesia and Vietnam in 1949, Malaysia in 1957—retained their plantations and production structure. 80% of India's production is from smallholders rather than estates, and Kerala produces 90% of the annual rubber crop. Kerala set up the cooperative marketing federation (RubberMark), which provides collectivised smallholders price negotiation benefits of large producers. It encourages smallholders to cultivate family plots and to make rubber one of several income streams. India's national rubber board (set up in 1947) provides research, training, marketing and other functions to support rubber producers in the country. Scientifically, what gives natural rubber its unique quality? Rubber is a biopolymer made of isoprene units. Tens of thousands of isoprene units are joined together with cis-linkage to make the enormously long rubber molecule. Thousands of these long molecules intertwine, typically sliding around each other like cooked and oiled spaghetti. Chemical modifications, such as crosslinking between strands, can modulate rebound following stretching, termed elasticity, and ability to bend without breaking, termed flexibility. Rubber shows another unique property, of contracting when heated, which is extremely useful in belts for rotating motors. The unique quality of natural rubber is its amenability to incorporating chemical additives or treatment to produce materials as diverse as sturdy but elastic airplane tyres to sustain the weight of an airplane during landing, thin but resilient airbags which expand explosively without bursting, and heat-resistant hard rubber for flooring, and belts for machinery. No synthetic rubber polymer (as yet produced) matches natural rubber's properties. What does the future of rubber look like in terms of its environmental impact and sustainable use? Synthetic rubber plugs the deficit for some uses but, given that natural rubber is an indispensable substance for several uses (such as airplane tyres) the demand is ever-increasing. Para rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) need to be tapped early in the morning, and the latex collected in the day for coagulation, so access to the trees requires clear and unimpeded paths. There are negative impacts of increasing production in tropical areas, because they require bulldozing wilderness, with collateral damage to complex ecosystems. However, rubber from the roots of the humble Russian dandelion, Taraxacum kok-saghyz, produces rubber of equivalent quality to Para rubber. Although it takes large quantities of dandelion roots, these plants have other benefits: they grow in temperate regions rather than biodiversity-rich tropical rainforests, support pollinators, produce value-added products such as inulin, fatty acids, phenolic compounds, caftaric and chicoric acids, and sesquiterpenoids. The remnants can be used as feedstock or fertiliser. Regarding sustainability, a major benefit will be recycling or reusing rubber products. Some waste rubber is burned for energy, but toxic volatiles must be scrubbed. The bacterium Gordonia polyisoprenivorens, and some less-well characterised bacterial and fungal species break down tyre rubber and possibly other rubber materials, but industrial processes must be optimised and residual products detoxified. For instance, an antioxidant used in tyres, 6PDD, is toxic to salmon, and must be sequestered from entering water bodies. Extra-terrestrial occupation by humans will also require rubber. We need to plan for a surge in demand, and for managing rubber waste on other planets. Also read: 'Dr Strangelove' remains the essential anti-war film
Yahoo
12-05-2025
- Science
- Yahoo
Archaeologists Explored a ‘Blood Cave'—and Found Chopped-Up Maya Skulls
"Hearst Magazines and Yahoo may earn commission or revenue on some items through these links." Guatemala's Cueva de Sangre, translated as 'blood cave,' isn't just a clever name. It's an apropos description of the cave former purpose, as a depository of fragments of human remains sacrificed by the Maya people to their rain god. If that sounds violent, that's because it was. The cave—and the remains within in it—were first discovered in the 1990s at Dos Pilas in Peten, part of a stretch of roughly 12 caves the Maya people frequented between 400 B.C. and 250 A.D. The 'blood cave,' though, stood out from the other caves discovered for its collection of human bones strewn across the cave floor, with dismemberment and traumatic injuries the norm. But new research presented at the annual Society for American Archaeology meeting, titled 'Black as Night, Dark as Death,' highlighted the significance of this discovery, beyond the initial brutality on display. 'Human skeletal remains deposited in caves, cenotes, chultuns, and other natural and artificial subterranean chambers provide some of the best contexts to investigate ritual behavior among ancient Mesoamericans,' according to Michele Bleuze, bioarcheologist at California State University, Los Angeles. Deep within the Guatemalan cave—reached via a small opening with a passageway that drops toward a pool of water—only accessible during the dry season, Bleuze said the injuries enacted upon the more than 100 adult and juvenile human bone fragments show that the remains were part of a ritual to please a Maya rain god. 'The emerging pattern that we're seeing is that there are body parts and not bodies,' Bleuze told Live Science. 'In Maya ritual, body parts are just as valuable as the whole body.' Getting from traumatic injury to rain god ritual, though, was more than just conjecture. The bones weren't buried and that the injuries occurred around the time of death, leading those studying the remains to determine the the body parts were the results of ritual dismemberment. 'The types of skeletal elements present, trauma, arrangement of bones, and bone modifications, strongly support the sacrificial nature of the deposition,' the researchers wrote. Ellen Fricano, a forensic anthropologist at Western University of Health Sciences in California, told Live Science that a beveled-edge tool, possibly akin to a hatchet, left a distinguishing mark on the left side of a skull's forehead. A similar mark was found on a child's hip bone. Even the way the bones were placed within the cave, such as four stacked skull caps in one spot, sparked questions. The experts conclude that the intense injuries, transparent volume of bones, and the inclusion of other ritual items, such as red ochre and obsidian blades, show that the blood cave wasn't a run-of-the-mill burial site. Researchers plan to do additional DNA testing to learn more about the bones. 'Right now, our focus is who are these people deposited here,' Bleuze said, 'because they're treated completely differently than the majority of the population.' The fact the cave is inaccessible other than for roughly three months in the spring offers additional reasoning behind the sacrifices. Bleuze believes the Day of the Holy Cross celebration each May 3 brought the ancient people to caves to plead with the Maya rain god for enough rain to supply a bountiful harvest. 'It is not surprising,' Bleuze wrote, 'that bioarcheologists encounter human remains that extend our understanding of the life and death of ancient Mesoamericans beyond what is provided in traditional mortuary contexts.' You Might Also Like The Do's and Don'ts of Using Painter's Tape The Best Portable BBQ Grills for Cooking Anywhere Can a Smart Watch Prolong Your Life?
