Unveiling ancient Egypt: 4,800-year-old genome rewrites history - Ancient Egypt

Al-Ahram Weekly

a day ago

In a groundbreaking scientific discovery, an international research team has successfully sequenced the first whole ancient Egyptian genome from an individual who lived 4,500 to 4,800 years ago – the oldest DNA sample from Egypt to date.
The study, published today in the journal Nature, reveals that 80 percent of his ancestry is related to ancient people in North Africa and 20 percent to ancient people in West Asia. The finding significantly reinforces the scientific understanding of human migration out of Africa and the historical intermingling of populations between ancient Egyptians and other civilisations throughout history.
Unravelling the secrets of an ancient potter
At a press conference attended by Ahram Online, Dr Adeline Morez Jacobs, Visiting Research Fellow, explained that the remains, which belonged to a man, were preserved without mummification in a pottery vessel within a mountain in Upper Egypt. This unique preservation method was crucial, as it maintained the dental cells in excellent condition over millennia, enabling the successful extraction of genetic material. This achievement marks the first and oldest complete genome of an Egyptian from the period following the unification of the Egyptian kingdom and the construction of the pyramids, specifically between 2700 and 2600 BCE.
Addressing questions about the possibility of extrapolating these findings from a single individual to represent the genome of Egyptians during the Old Kingdom, the research team clarified that they conducted several studies on the skeleton, examining his teeth and dietary patterns. The results indicate that the man lived and died in the Nile River basin. Furthermore, visible markers on his arm, thigh, and foot bones suggest that he engaged in muscle-intensive work that required prolonged sitting, such as pottery making. His unique burial in a pottery vessel also points to a distinguished social status within ancient Egyptian society.
Archaeological context at the Nuwayrat site. a, Rock-cut tombs at Nuwayrat enclosing the pottery vessel containing the pottery coffin burial. b, An impression of the rock-cut tomb based on the archaeologist John Garstang's description, with the pottery coffin burial in the south burial chamber. c, Pottery coffin and archaeological remains of the Nuwayrat individual, as discovered in 1902. Images courtesy of the Garstang Museum of Archaeology, University of Liverpool. As in Morez, A. (2025). Nature.
Collaboration and challenges in ancient DNA research
The international research team has expressed keen interest in collaborating with Egyptian scientists involved in the Royal Mummies Genome Project. This collaboration aims to share scientific expertise in extracting genetic material, a particularly challenging endeavour when dealing with mummified remains due to the mixture of tissues with chemical preservation agents. In a related vein, the international team had previously announced in February their research on extracting genetic material from 94 ancient Egyptian bodies, which were transferred from tombs in the mountains of Armant and Nuwayrat to the Liverpool Museum in Britain in the early 20th century.
Pontus Skoglund, Group Leader of the Ancient Genomics Laboratory at the Francis Crick Institute and co-senior author, highlighted the significant challenges scientists face in extracting ancient DNA. He explained that hot and humid conditions are major detrimental factors that impede the preservation of genetic material in ancient Egyptian remains. "This difficulty is compounded in mummified bodies due to the interaction of embalming materials with body tissues. Conversely, the preservation of the man's body in a pottery vessel deep within the mountain for thousands of years provided moderate and dry environmental conditions that prevented the degradation of his genetic material over such a long period," he said.
Pottery vessel in which the Nuwayrat individual was discovered. Image courtesy of the Garstang Museum of Archaeology, University of Liverpool. As in Morez, A. (2025). Nature.
A potter's life etched in bone
According to the study, skeletal analysis revealed the individual was a male of average height, likely a potter, evidenced by signs indicating prolonged sitting in a specific posture with extended arms and legs on a hard surface. He also suffered from severe arthritis in his neck. While circumstantial, this aligns with the demands of pottery. This theory is further supported by unusual wear patterns on several toe bones and the arch of his right foot, which likely indicates that he operated a potter's wheel. These skeletal markers correspond to the postures depicted for potters in ancient tomb paintings.
"The facial reconstruction of this ancient Egyptian relied on the expertise of the Liverpool John Moores University Face Lab and international anthropologist Caroline Wilkinson, who have experience in this field. The markings on the skeleton are clues to the individual's life and lifestyle – his seat bones are expanded in size, his arms showed evidence of extensive movement back and forth, and there's substantial arthritis in just the right foot. Though circumstantial, these clues point towards pottery, including use of a pottery wheel, which arrived in Egypt around the same time. That said, his higher-class burial is not expected for a potter, who would not normally receive such treatment. Perhaps he was exceptionally skilled or successful to advance his social status," Joel Irish, Professor of Anthropology and Archaeology at Liverpool John Moores University, stated.
Facial reconstruction of the individual from Nuwayrat using 3D scan data of the skull and analysis of the bones. The skull and idea of his face are overlaid to create one image. Credit: Caroline Wilkinson, Liverpool John Moores University. As in Morez, A. (2025). Nature.
Egyptian scientists weigh in
Dr Khaled Amer, principal investigator of the Egyptian Genome Project, emphasised the importance of this recently published research. He noted that the ability to extract a complete genome from the teeth of an Egyptian who lived between 4,500 and 4,800 years ago is a pivotal technical achievement, representing the oldest such case in the study of ancient Egyptian genomes. Moreover, this study focuses on an ordinary ancient Egyptian, not a member of the nobility. "This type of research has been ongoing for years in several research centres worldwide, involving prominent scientists like Swedish scientist Svante Pääbo, who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2022, and the Max Planck Institute in Germany (2017), which published on Egyptian mummies from 1400 BCE to 400 CE," he told Ahram Online.
"Generally, any international research published on the ancient Egyptian genome is beneficial and supports our national project," Amer added. He highlighted the Science and Technology Academy's ongoing efforts in the Egyptian Genome Project, which the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research initiated in 2021.
The project is carried out in coordination with relevant ministries, including the Ministries of Defence, Health and Population, Tourism and Antiquities, and Youth and Sports. It is implemented by the Medical Research and Regenerative Medicine Centre in collaboration with a consortium of governmental and private universities, research centres, and non-governmental organisations. The project plans to analyse the genomes of 200 royal mummies over five years in cooperation with the National Museum of Egyptian Civilisation.
"We have already successfully extracted 22 samples from nine mummies in the previous phase, and their genomes have been studied. We are currently in the data analysis phase," Amer added. In processing the data, the scientists rely on advanced software and high-speed computers in coordination with data centres at the Ministry of Defence. They anticipate publishing the complete genomes of nine royal mummies internationally soon. The findings from their genome research on mummies can be compared with population genome research to identify the degree of genetic similarity and changes that have occurred in Egyptians over time, compared to their royal ancestors.
Furthermore, Amer explained that the research will be conducted in collaboration with an international research centre for ancient Egyptian genome sequencing. He added that the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research, as well as the President of the Academy of Scientific Research, support this collaboration. Moreover, Amer noted the establishment of two modern centres for analysing genomic study data in Egypt, boasting high computational power and large storage capacity to accelerate research pace and results.
Dr Yehia Zakaria Gad, Professor of Molecular Genetics at the National Research Centre and Scientific Supervisor of the ancient DNA lab at the National Museum of Egyptian Civilisation (NMEC), remarked, "The recently published paper represents a significant step in the field of molecular Egyptology, as it marks the first time a complete ancient Egyptian genome has been sequenced. Extracting these results from an individual who lived during the Old Kingdom is a major technical achievement, as he lived prior to the peak of mummification techniques (Dynasties 18 to 22) that offered superior body preservation. Furthermore, the social status of the individual studied in the current work does not align with the royal families who received the best post-mortem embalming treatment."
Gad also noted that comparing the genomic data of this ancient Egyptian with that of various ethnic groups across a vast timeline showed that he carried significant genetic contributions from North African genomes, with a smaller proportion from the Fertile Crescent. However, as the article mentions, the studied individual is just one person, and his genetic profile represents his family lineage, which should not lead to broad generalisations about the genetic makeup of ancient or modern Egyptians. The limited published works on genetic studies of ancient and modern Egyptian citizens indicate a highly diverse population that carries genetic contributions from many human groups throughout its recorded history spanning over 5,000 years. This is linked to Egypt's position as an important hub and melting pot for many of the world's ethnicities throughout history.
Dr Tarek Taha, a Genetics Consultant and member of the Scientific Committee for the Egyptian Genome Project, highlighted the significant international interest in archaeological genetics related to Egypt, especially with recent technological advancements contributing to improved genetic sequencing analysis. He explained that the general goal of mummy genome research is to trace human origins and genetic intermingling across history.
"For instance, in Egypt, they previously conducted genomic studies on 11 mummies from Tutankhamun's family to determine kinship and family trees among kings and queens. Over time, genomics has evolved from merely studying the mummy's genetic material to examining the surrounding environment and the bacterial or viral genes present with the mummy, which can explain the cause of death and whether it was linked to a disease. Indeed, these studies helped determine that Tutankhamun died from malaria and some genetic diseases resulting from consanguineous marriage," he said.
Taha added that the Egyptian government fully funds and supports the Egyptian Reference Genome Project, which encompasses ancient and modern Egyptians, and that the project is carried out strictly by Egyptian scientists and research entities. He indicated that the Egyptian team will soon publish their research in prestigious scientific journals. However, Taha cautioned against generalising conclusions drawn from a single study, from a single sample, and a single location. After all, the studied genes belong to only one commoner from the Old Kingdom.
"It is difficult to generalise the genetic origins of ancient Egyptians based on the analysis of a single sample's genome, particularly as it is possible that the individual whose results were obtained was a foreign visitor living in ancient Egypt during that period. Therefore, it is crucial for research to continue on more samples, mummified and non-mummified, to achieve a better assessment of the genetic origins of ancient Egyptians and their connection to factors of influence and interaction with all races in different parts of the world," he added.
Geographic location of the Nuwayrat cemetery (red dot), and the previously sequenced Third Intermediate period individuals from Abusir-el Meleq (purple diamond). Credit: Adeline Morez. As in Morez, A. (2025). Nature.
Pottery vessel in which the Nuwayrat individual was discovered. Image courtesy of the Garstang Museum of Archaeology, University of Liverpool. As in Morez, A. (2025). Nature.
Rock-cut tombs at Nuwayrat enclosing the pottery vessel containing the pottery coffin burial. Image courtesy of the Garstang Museum of Archaeology, University of Liverpool. As in Morez, A. (2025). Nature.
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