Behind History's Icons: Napoleon and His Notorious Anatomy

Medscape

28-05-2025

The ancient Egyptians believed that mummifying the king's body enabled his ascension to the realm of the gods. According to this belief, the preserved body, known as the Ach — a luminous spirit — was thought to enter the sarcophagus, symbolizing the womb of Nut, the mother goddess of the sky.
This belief in the enduring power of corpses echoes human history.
In the early history of the Church in the West, Christians developed a special reverence for the bones of saints. Among the many preserved relics are Jesus' foreskin and the head of John the Baptist.
By the 19th century, European scientists had begun to preserve and study the organs of extraordinary individuals.
From Mohammed's beard and Buddha's teeth to Adolf Hitler's testicles, this offers an overview of the most famous human body parts in history. Part I examines the masculinity of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Napoleon: Symbol of Masculinity
How masculine was Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)? The answer to this question depends on the definition of masculinity. However, sufficient biographical evidence exists to offer clear answers to some of the possible variations in this otherwise broad and general question.
During the French Revolution, young soldier Bonaparte distinguished himself as a military talent of the highest caliber. He went on to become a general of the First French Republic, the First Consul of France, and eventually the Emperor of the French, King of Italy, and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine.
Pieter Geyl wrote in 1947, 'It is impossible that two historians, especially two historians living in different periods, should see any historical personality in the same light.' reflecting on the personality that enabled Bonaparte's swift rise to military and political power.
What is beyond dispute is that Bonaparte was 'ambitious,' 'highly intelligent,' 'exceptionally well-organized,' and possessed 'an excellent memory.'
These traits allowed him to issue complex military orders swiftly and accurately during critical battles without losing track of troop movements.
Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington from 1769 to 1852, said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers. He could charm people when he needed to but could also publicly humiliate them and was known for his rage when his plans were frustrated.
By that measure, if masculinity was defined by ambition, resolve, and authority, Napoleon would undoubtedly be masculine.
Frail Figure
Physical strength is another traditional indicator of masculinity.
Swiss officer Johann Ludwig Wurstemberger, who accompanied Bonaparte between 1797 and 1798, described him at 29 as 'slight and emaciated looking.'
Among his troops, Bonaparte was nicknamed Le Petit Caporal, translated as 'The Little Corporal.' In many later portraits, he appears noticeably shorter than his officers do.
This apparent contradiction between personality and physique inspired the Austrian physician and psychiatrist Alfred Adler in 1870-1937 to retrospectively diagnose Bonaparte with an inferiority complex, which was largely caused by his small stature and sexual dysfunction. Adler's theory evolved into what is now known as the 'Napoleon complex.'
Historians now know that Napoleon was not unusually short. Standing at 1.686 m, he was > 8 cm taller than the average Frenchman of his time. Young soldiers usually measured between 1.65 and 1.69 m. The fact that Bonaparte nevertheless appears short in paintings is probably due to his preference for tall soldiers — none of his bodyguards were < 1.76 m.
Contradictory Sex Life
Bonaparte had his first sexual experiences at 18 as a second lieutenant with Parisian prostitutes from the Palais-Royal. He remained faithful to his first wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais, for 2 years — 1763-1814. While on campaign in Egypt, he met Marguérite Pauline Fourés in 1778-869, who was newly married. After sending her husband, a lieutenant, back to France with an important letter, Bonaparte had an affair with Fourés.
Two years later, he became involved with the famous Milanese opera singer Giuseppina Grassini — 1773-1850. Later, Bonaparte had affairs with actors Marguerite-Joséphine Georges in 1787-1867 and Catherine-Joséphine Duchesnois in 1777-1835, as well as with Adèle Duchâtel — 1782-1860, the wife of an elderly state councilor.
Napoleon appointed the young Genoese dancer Carlotta Gazzani in 1789-1827 as de Beauharnais's reader to facilitate his affairs with Gazzani. Bonaparte also seduced the wives of his officers and other politicians.
However, politician and writer Marie-Henri Beyle in 1783-1842, who witnessed one of Bonaparte's encounters, wrote about his sexual performance:
'The emperor, sitting at a small table with his sword at his side, signed decrees. The lady entered, without being disturbed, he asked her to sit on the bed. The main part of the meeting lasted < 3 minutes. Often his Mameluke stood behind a screen.'
Surgeon and author Robert McNair Wilson later speculated that Napoleon had testicular atrophy and impotence in his 50s. Even when the Countess of Ornano, Maria Walewska in 1786-1817, with whom he had already fathered an illegitimate child, secretly visited him in exile in 1814, she was given separate accommodation.
The Final Symbol
A final thought-provoking detail about Bonaparte's masculinity comes from his penis, obtained during an autopsy in 1821 and reportedly preserved to this day.
In a Channel 4 documentary by the British television network, Napoleon's preserved penis, reportedly owned by American urologist John Kingsley Lattimer, was measured off-camera. at 1.0 inch (2.54 cm). Experts estimate that in his lifetime, it may have measured approximately 3-4 cm.
The penis is often viewed as a symbol of male creativity and power. However, the discovery of the penis of one of history's most influential and idealized figures, Monarch Napoleon I, invites a reconsideration of penis cults and old stereotypes.