Life's Building Blocks Likely Formed Close To Earth
How did life here at home get its first building materials? The onset of life here on Earth likely hinged on the delivery of organic material delivered by water- and carbon-rich asteroids. To date, the argument has been that most of the water and the organics that would build life (including amino acids) originated very far out in our early solar system.
But in a paper just published in the journal Nature Communications, lead author, Matthew Genge, a geologist at Imperial College London, and colleagues argue that the building blocks of life had their origins in an intensely turbulent region of space close to our giant planet Jupiter.
The findings are based on evidence from samples of carbon-rich asteroid Ryugu, returned to Earth by the Japan Aerospace Agency Hayabusa 2 mission, Imperial College notes.
We studied microchondrules ---- tiny pieces of rock from asteroid Ryugu, which is a really carbon and water rich asteroid, the kind of asteroid that probably delivered all the carbon and water for our planet, Genge told me in his office. In that sample, we discovered evidence for a whole new way of making these types of asteroids, he says. Maybe they formed not just at a great distance, but where the early solar system was turbulent and disturbed, says Genge. It's in those places that these carbon and water rich particles are concentrated, he says.
The Ryugu specimen that I studied was only one millimeter across, says Genge. To people who study meteorites, that's tiny, but to me it was a boulder, because I'm used to studying things 10 times smaller, he says.
Using a scanning electron microscope, the team was able to identify a shockingly large number of microchondrules, tiny spheres originally consisting of glass, that had been altered by water formed when ice melted on the asteroid, says Imperial College. The team identified them by virtue of their sulfide-rims, which could be seen in X-ray CT scans of the mm-sized Ryugu sample, the college notes.
Until now, the asteroid Ryugu had been thought to have formed at some 20 to 30 Earth-Sun distances, or out beyond the present-day orbits of Uranus and Neptune.
But new scanning electron microscope images that suggest the building-blocks of life originated near Jupiter in our early solar system, rather than from deep space as currently thought, says the imperial college London.
There was likely intense turbulence just beyond the orbit of Jupiter in the early Solar System, where gas was stirred up by the wake of the giant planet.
Just outside this region was also a pressure bump where mm-sized grains were concentrated by gas flow, Imperial College reports. This Jovian pressure bump was essentially a chondrule factory that concentrated and incorporated this material into asteroids, the college notes.
What Melts These Microchondrules?
It's still not known but Genge says his favorite hypothesis is that the heat is generated by flash heating caused by random explosive shockwaves that moved through our solar system's young protoplanetary disk.
These shockwaves could have caused temperatures in the disk of up to 1900 degrees Celsius, which is hot enough to melt steel. And more importantly, it was hot enough to melt these protoplanetary materials into molten droplets of primitive microchondrules.
If you've ever watched a movie with an explosion in it, you've seen an expanding shockwave, says Genge.
It's that rapidly moving shell that flash heats the dust to make molten droplets. However, the finest grain dust particles escape most of the heating, so they keep their carbon and water and other organic material.
But due to this material's proximity to Jupiter, there was locally an intense amount of disk turbulence which caused rapidly turning eddies of gas.
These eddies of gas throw out the big particles and keep the really fine dust, says Genge. Then, if you make an object like an asteroid there, it's mainly fine grained, he says.
The fine grains contained carbon and water and critical prebiotic molecules such as amino acids. These and the microchondrules subsequently migrated inward towards the inner solar system and likely predate the formation of our own planet.
Yet when Earth did form, the building blocks of life were there waiting to be incorporated into our nascent planet.
Illustration of how microchondrules might have formed early in the solar system
The Bottom Line?
Earth was likely seeded by building blocks of life from both the cold outer regions of our solar system as well as from near our gas giant planet Jupiter.
As for what's next?
We've now got a really good understanding of where in the solar system these materials come from, says Genge. But over the next twenty years, we're going to sample more unusual asteroids and learn more about the early solar system, he says.
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Yahoo
8 hours ago
- Yahoo
The asteroid that will spare Earth might hit the moon instead. What happens if it does?
The asteroid known as 2024 YR4 is out of sight yet still very much on scientists' minds. The building-sized object, which initially appeared to be on a potential collision course with Earth, is currently zooming beyond the reach of telescopes on its orbit around the sun. But as scientists wait for it to reappear, its revised trajectory is now drawing attention to another possible target: the moon. Discovered at the end of 2024, the space rock looked at first as if it might hit our planet by December 22, 2032. The chance of that impact changed with every new observation, peaking at 3.1% in February — odds that made it the riskiest asteroid ever observed. Ground- and space-based telescope observations were crucial in helping astronomers narrow in on 2024 YR4's size and orbit. With more precise measurements, researchers were ultimately able to rule out an Earth impact. The latest observations of the asteroid in early June, before YR4 disappeared from view, have improved astronomers' knowledge of where it will be in seven years by almost 20%, according to NASA. That data shows that even with Earth avoiding direct impact, YR4 could still pose a threat in late 2032 by slamming into the moon. The impact would be a once-in-a-lifetime event for humanity to witness — but it could also send fine-grained lunar material hurtling toward our planet. While Earth wouldn't face any significant physical danger should the asteroid strike the moon, there is a chance that any astronauts or infrastructure on the lunar surface at that time could be at risk — as could satellites orbiting our planet that we depend on to keep vital aspects of life, including navigation and communications, running smoothly. Any missions in low-Earth orbit could also be in the pathway of the debris, though the International Space Station is scheduled to be deorbited before any potential impact. Initially, YR4 was seen as a case study in why scientists do the crucial work of planetary defense, discovering and tracking asteroids to determine which ones have a chance of colliding with Earth. Now, astronomers say this one asteroid could redefine the range of risks the field addresses, expanding the purview of the work to include monitoring asteroids that might be headed for the moon as well. 'We're starting to realize that maybe we need to extend that shield a little bit further,' said Dr. Paul Wiegert, a professor of astronomy and physics at the Western University in London, Ontario. 'We now have things worth protecting that are a bit further away from Earth, so our vision is hopefully expanding a little bit to encompass that.' In the meantime, researchers are assessing just how much chaos a potential YR4 lunar impact could create — and whether anything can be done to mitigate it. 'City killer' on the moon The threatening hunk of rock appears as just a speck of light through even the strongest astronomical tools. In reality, YR4 is likely about 60 meters (about 200 feet) in diameter, according to observations in March by the James Webb Space Telescope, the most powerful space-based observatory in operation. 'Size equals energy,' said Julien de Wit, associate professor of planetary sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who observed YR4 with Webb. 'Knowing YR4's size helped us understand how big of an explosion it could be.' Astronomers believe they have found most of the near-Earth asteroids the field would classify as 'planet killers' — space rocks that are 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) across or larger and could be civilization-ending, said Dr. Andy Rivkin, planetary astronomer from the Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory in Maryland. The planet killer that slammed into Earth 66 million years ago and led to the extinction of dinosaurs was estimated to be roughly 6 miles (about 10 kilometers) in diameter. Smaller asteroids such as YR4, which was colloquially dubbed a 'city killer' after its discovery, could cause regional devastation if they collide with our planet. About 40% of near-Earth space rocks larger than 140 meters (460 feet) but smaller than a kilometer — capable of more widespread destruction — have been identified, according to NASA. But astronomers have never really had a chance to watch a collision of that size occur on the moon in real time, Wiegert said. The latest glimpses of YR4 on June 3 before it passed out of view revealed a 4.3% chance of a YR4 lunar impact — small but decent enough odds for scientists to consider how such a scenario might play out. A striking meteor shower — and a risk Initial calculations suggest the impact has the largest chance of occurring on the near side of the moon — the side we can see from Earth. 'YR4 is so faint and small we were able to measure its position with JWST longer than we were able to do it from the ground,' said Rivkin, who has been leading the Webb study of YR4. 'And that lets us calculate a much more precise orbit for it, so we now have a much better idea of where it will be and won't be.' The collision could create a bright flash that would be visible with the naked eye for several seconds, according to Wiegert, lead author of a recent paper submitted to the American Astronomical Society journals analyzing the potential lunar impact. The collision could create an impact crater on the moon estimated at 1 kilometer wide (0.6 miles wide), Wiegert said — about the size of Meteor Crater in Arizona, Rivkin added. It would be the largest impact on the moon in 5,000 years and could release up to 100 million kilograms (220 million pounds) of lunar rocks and dust, according to the modeling in Wiegert's study. Even pieces of debris that are just tens of centimeters in size could present a hazard for any astronauts who may be present on the moon, or any structures they have built for research and habitation, Wiegert said. The moon has no atmosphere, so the debris from the event could be widespread on the lunar surface, he added. On average, the moon is 238,855 miles (384,400 kilometers) away from Earth, according to NASA. Particles the size of large sand grains, ranging from 0.1 to 10 millimeters in size, of lunar material could reach Earth between a few days and a few months after the asteroid strike because they'll be traveling incredibly fast, creating an intense, eye-catching meteor shower, Wiegert said. 'There's absolutely no danger to anyone on the surface,' Wiegert said. 'We're not expecting large boulders or anything larger than maybe a sugar cube, and our atmosphere will protect us very nicely from that. But they're traveling faster than a speeding bullet, so if they were to hit a satellite, that could cause some damage.' Not all lunar debris that reaches the Earth is so small, and it depends on the angle and type of impact to the moon, according to Washington University in St. Louis. Space rocks slamming into the lunar surface over millions of years have resulted in various sizes of lunar meteorites found on Earth. Preparing for impact Hundreds to thousands of impacts from millimeter-size debris could affect Earth's satellite fleet, meaning satellites could experience up to 10 years' equivalent of meteor debris exposure in a few days, Wiegert said. Humankind depends on vital space infrastructure, said Dan Oltrogge, chief scientist at COMSPOC, a space situational awareness software company that develops solutions for handling hazards such as space debris. 'Space touches almost every aspect of our lives today, ranging from commerce, communications, travel, industry, education, and social media, so a loss of access to and effective use of space presents a serious risk to humanity,' Oltrogge said. The event is unlikely to trigger a Kessler Syndrome scenario in which debris from broken satellites would collide with others to create a domino effect or fall to Earth. Instead, it might be more akin to when a piece of gravel strikes a car windshield at high speed, meaning solar panels or other delicate satellite parts might be damaged, but the satellite will remain in one piece, Wiegert said. While a temporary loss of communication and navigation from satellites would create widespread difficulties on Earth, Wiegert said he believes the potential impact is something for satellite operators, rather than the public, to worry about. Protecting Earth and the moon Scientists and astronomers around the world are thinking about the possible scenarios since they could not rule out a lunar impact before YR4 disappeared from view, Wiegert said. 'We realize that an impact to the moon could be consequential, so what would we do?' de Wit said. A potential planetary defense plan might be clearer if the asteroid were headed straight for Earth. Rivkin helped test one approach in September 2022 as the principal investigator of NASA's Double Asteroid Redirection Test, or DART, which intentionally slammed a spacecraft into the asteroid Dimorphos in September 2022. Dimorphos is a moonlet asteroid that orbits a larger parent asteroid known as Didymos. Neither poses a threat to Earth, but the double-asteroid system was a perfect target to test deflection technology because Dimorphos' size is comparable to asteroids that could harm our planet in the event of an impact. The DART mission crashed a spacecraft into the asteroid at 13,645 miles per hour (6 kilometers per second) to find out whether such a kinetic impact would be enough to change the motion of a celestial object in space. It worked. Since the day of the collision, data from ground-based telescopes has revealed that the DART spacecraft did alter Dimorphos' orbital period — or how long it takes to make a single revolution around Didymos — by about 32 or 33 minutes. And scientists have continued to observe additional changes to the pair, including how the direct hit likely deformed Dimorphos due to the asteroid's composition. Similarly, if YR4 strikes the moon and doesn't result in damaging effects for satellites, it could create a tremendous opportunity for researchers to learn how the lunar surface responds to impacts, Wiegert said. But whether it would make sense to send a DART-like mission to knock YR4 off a collision course with the moon remains to be seen. It will depend on future risk assessments by planetary defense groups when the asteroid comes back into view around 2028, de Wit said. Though defense plans for a potential moon impact still aren't clear, YR4's journey underscores the importance — and the challenges — of tracking objects that are often impossible to see. Hidden threats YR4 was detected by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System, or ATLAS telescope, in Río Hurtado, Chile, two days after the asteroid had already made its closest pass by Earth, hidden by the bright glare of the sun as it approached our planet. The same thing occurred when an asteroid measuring roughly 20 meters (about 65 feet) across hit the atmosphere and exploded above Chelyabinsk, Russia, on February 15, 2013, damaging thousands of buildings, according to the European Space Agency. While no one died, about 1,500 people were injured when the windows in homes and businesses blew out due to the shock wave. Trying to observe asteroids is challenging for many reasons, Rivkin said. Asteroids are incredibly faint and hard to see because rather than emitting their own light, they only reflect sunlight. And because of their relatively tiny size, interpreting observations is not a clear-cut process like looking through a telescope at a planet such as Mars or Jupiter. 'For asteroids, we only see them as a point of light, and so by measuring how bright they are and measuring their temperature, basically we can get a size based on how big do they have to be in order to be this bright,' Rivkin said. For decades, astronomers have had to search for faint asteroids by night, which means missing any that may be on a path coming from the direction of the sun — creating the world's biggest blind spot for ground-based telescopes that can't block out our star's luminosity. But upcoming telescopes — including NASA's NEO Surveyor expected to launch by the end of 2027 and the European Space Agency's Near-Earth Object Mission in the InfraRed, or NEOMIR satellite, set for liftoff in the early 2030s — could shrink that blind spot, helping researchers detect asteroids much closer to the sun. 'NEOMIR would have detected asteroid 2024 YR4 about a month earlier than ground-based telescopes did,' said Richard Moissl, head of ESA's Planetary Defence Office, in a statement. 'This would have given astronomers more time to study the asteroid's trajectory and allowed them to much sooner rule out any chance of Earth impact in 2032.' NASA and other space agencies are constantly on the lookout for potentially hazardous asteroids, defined as such based on their distance from Earth and ability to cause significant damage should an impact occur. Asteroids that can't get any closer to our planet than one-twentieth of Earth's distance from the sun are not considered to be potentially hazardous asteroids, according to NASA. When the new Vera C. Rubin Observatory, located in the Andes in Chile, released its first stunning images of the cosmos in June, researchers revealed the discovery of more than 2,100 previously unknown asteroids after seven nights of those newly detected space rocks, seven were near-Earth objects. A near-Earth object is an asteroid or comet on an orbit that brings it within 120 million miles (about 190 million kilometers) of the sun, which means it has the potential to pass near Earth, according to NASA. None of the new ones detected by Rubin were determined to pose a threat to our planet. Rubin will act as a great asteroid hunter, de Wit said, while telescopes such as Webb could be a tracker that follow up on Rubin's discoveries. A proposal by Rivkin and de Wit to use Webb to observe YR4 in the spring of 2026 has just been approved. Webb is the only telescope with a chance of glimpsing the asteroid before 2028. 'This newly approved program will buy decision makers two extra years to prepare — though most likely to relax, as there is an 80% chance of ruling out impact — while providing key experience-based lessons for handling future potential impactors to be discovered by Vera Rubin,' de Wit said. And because of the twists and turns of YR4's tale thus far, asteroids that have potential to affect the moon could become objects of even more intense study in the future. 'If this really is a thing that we only have to worry about every 5,000 years or something, then maybe that's less pressing,' Rivkin said. 'But even just asking what would we do if we did see something that was going to hit the moon is at least something that we can now start thinking about.' Sign up for CNN's Wonder Theory science newsletter. Explore the universe with news on fascinating discoveries, scientific advancements and more.
Forbes
14 hours ago
- Forbes
Life's Building Blocks Likely Formed Close To Earth
This is a colored view of the C-type asteroid 162173 Ryugu, seen by the ONC-T camera on board of ... More Hayabusa2. Filters: vwx date:2018-07-12 08:01 Image level: 2b (Images after hardware correction and radiometric correction). How did life here at home get its first building materials? The onset of life here on Earth likely hinged on the delivery of organic material delivered by water- and carbon-rich asteroids. To date, the argument has been that most of the water and the organics that would build life (including amino acids) originated very far out in our early solar system. But in a paper just published in the journal Nature Communications, lead author, Matthew Genge, a geologist at Imperial College London, and colleagues argue that the building blocks of life had their origins in an intensely turbulent region of space close to our giant planet Jupiter. The findings are based on evidence from samples of carbon-rich asteroid Ryugu, returned to Earth by the Japan Aerospace Agency Hayabusa 2 mission, Imperial College notes. We studied microchondrules ---- tiny pieces of rock from asteroid Ryugu, which is a really carbon and water rich asteroid, the kind of asteroid that probably delivered all the carbon and water for our planet, Genge told me in his office. In that sample, we discovered evidence for a whole new way of making these types of asteroids, he says. Maybe they formed not just at a great distance, but where the early solar system was turbulent and disturbed, says Genge. It's in those places that these carbon and water rich particles are concentrated, he says. The Ryugu specimen that I studied was only one millimeter across, says Genge. To people who study meteorites, that's tiny, but to me it was a boulder, because I'm used to studying things 10 times smaller, he says. Using a scanning electron microscope, the team was able to identify a shockingly large number of microchondrules, tiny spheres originally consisting of glass, that had been altered by water formed when ice melted on the asteroid, says Imperial College. The team identified them by virtue of their sulfide-rims, which could be seen in X-ray CT scans of the mm-sized Ryugu sample, the college notes. Until now, the asteroid Ryugu had been thought to have formed at some 20 to 30 Earth-Sun distances, or out beyond the present-day orbits of Uranus and Neptune. But new scanning electron microscope images that suggest the building-blocks of life originated near Jupiter in our early solar system, rather than from deep space as currently thought, says the imperial college London. There was likely intense turbulence just beyond the orbit of Jupiter in the early Solar System, where gas was stirred up by the wake of the giant planet. Just outside this region was also a pressure bump where mm-sized grains were concentrated by gas flow, Imperial College reports. This Jovian pressure bump was essentially a chondrule factory that concentrated and incorporated this material into asteroids, the college notes. What Melts These Microchondrules? It's still not known but Genge says his favorite hypothesis is that the heat is generated by flash heating caused by random explosive shockwaves that moved through our solar system's young protoplanetary disk. These shockwaves could have caused temperatures in the disk of up to 1900 degrees Celsius, which is hot enough to melt steel. And more importantly, it was hot enough to melt these protoplanetary materials into molten droplets of primitive microchondrules. If you've ever watched a movie with an explosion in it, you've seen an expanding shockwave, says Genge. It's that rapidly moving shell that flash heats the dust to make molten droplets. However, the finest grain dust particles escape most of the heating, so they keep their carbon and water and other organic material. But due to this material's proximity to Jupiter, there was locally an intense amount of disk turbulence which caused rapidly turning eddies of gas. These eddies of gas throw out the big particles and keep the really fine dust, says Genge. Then, if you make an object like an asteroid there, it's mainly fine grained, he says. The fine grains contained carbon and water and critical prebiotic molecules such as amino acids. These and the microchondrules subsequently migrated inward towards the inner solar system and likely predate the formation of our own planet. Yet when Earth did form, the building blocks of life were there waiting to be incorporated into our nascent planet. Illustration of how microchondrules might have formed early in the solar system The Bottom Line? Earth was likely seeded by building blocks of life from both the cold outer regions of our solar system as well as from near our gas giant planet Jupiter. As for what's next? We've now got a really good understanding of where in the solar system these materials come from, says Genge. But over the next twenty years, we're going to sample more unusual asteroids and learn more about the early solar system, he says.
Forbes
15 hours ago
- Forbes
What Today's Leading Philosophers Have To Say About Conscious AI
TOPSHOT - A robot using artificial intelligence is displayed at a stand during the International ... More Telecommunication Union (ITU) AI for Good Global Summit in Geneva, on May 30, 2024. Humanity is in a race against time to harness the colossal emerging power of artificial intelligence for the good of all, while averting dire risks, a top UN official said. (Photo by Fabrice COFFRINI / AFP) (Photo by FABRICE COFFRINI/AFP via Getty Images) It is an illusion. Consciousness, that is. Earlier this month, leading experts in the realm of the mind gathered in Heraklion, Crete, for the International Center for Consciousness Studies (ICCS) annual conference. The topic for this year was Artificial Intelligence and Sentience. All the participating philosophers, psychologists, neurosurgeons, cognitive scientists and entrepreneurs agreed; the matter at hand is no longer just a subgenre of science fiction. According to David Hulme, CEO of Conscium, a machine consciousness research group and consultancy based in London, we have approximately five years before AI becomes a fully autonomous conscious agent. Given the numerous ethical questions associated with machine consciousness, Hulme and Conscium are as invested in the guiding principles of the research as the research itself. Their principles are readily available as an open letter on their website. The general public seems to agree about the imminence of conscious AI. Clara Colombatto, a University of Waterloo psychologist specializing in the perception of other minds, presented a series of empirical studies conducted to gauge the public perception of AI consciousness. In these tests, ChatGPT-4 is the constant used as AI. The results suggest that Hulme may actually be too generous in his timetable; 57-67% of those surveyed believe that ChatGPT is already conscious to some degree. Ok, so what? Does this mean that we must brace ourselves for a Matrix-like world? The computer scientist Roman Yampolskiy, author of Artificial Superintelligence: A Futuristic Approach, thinks so. Unlike today's cybersecurity, for example, where you can manually rectify a problem (e.g., banks issue a new credit card in cases of fraud), there will be no way out when a problem arises with conscious AI. Once it becomes conscious, it is already uncontrollable. The creation and implementation of conscious AI would then have to be perfect, which according to Yampolskiy is impossible. However, Yampolskiy would be the first to admit he is further down the doom-scale than most. Others are more hopeful; the philosopher and entrepreneur Dmitry Volkov, co-founder of the ICCS and CEO of Social Discovery Group (SDG), a global investment firm, believes the 2013 Spike Jonze film Her is a more apt prediction. This is why ten years later Volkov founded the girlfriend app Eva AI, an 'ideal AI partner who listens, and is always in touch with you.' The idea for Eva AI came out of data analysis from SDG, one of the first players in the online dating market. Many of the users were not always willing to meet but still desire communication. The Eva AI mission statement, according to Volkov: 'We are trying to solve the problem of loneliness from the other end, not from the Tinder attraction side.' This is where AI may be surprisingly effective. Volkov points out, 'when you disclose emotionally invaluable information with some other person, that has a real positive impact. But if you disclose it to humans or AI, it actually does not matter. "And we found early on [in our research] that emotional disclosure to AI has an even bigger positive impact. [The users] are discussing with a degree of honesty that is higher than if they were discussing with their brother or mother, because sometimes your brother or mother is your biggest judge.' The ethical implications of Eva AI are vast, but Volkov thinks it can be a tool for tenderness. 'If we develop an AI that is both capable of loving and capable of being loved, then it is sort of a solution. We don't kill or torture the ones we love, even if they are inferior to us…So the project that we are engaged in is actually trying to build an AI that is not the smartest thing in the world but has the emotional intelligence that's high enough to understand your feelings.' Much of the conversation on conscious AI centers around ethics. The cognitive philosopher Andy Clark, who was honored at the ICCS conference for his contributions to the study of consciousness, calls the ethical implications of AI 'the burning question.' Volkov has a theory why. 'Ethics,' he says, 'comes very naturally. We are social beings, and for us, it is very important to be able to differentiate between the good and the bad.' On the other hand, he believes that 'philosophers actually created the problem of consciousness. Most people get it when they put enough effort, but it's not coming naturally.' Clark and the rest of the ICCS mainly focused on the metaphysical problems of defining and fine-tuning the concept of consciousness during their time in Crete. In a 1994 lecture, the Australian philosopher Dave Chalmers first articulated the hard problem of consciousness. This became the seminal 1995 paper 'Facing Up To The Hard Problem of Consciousness.' In very general terms, the hard problem questions the explanatory gap between the physical wiring and firing in the brain and the subjective experience of what it is like to be you. How can something purely physical (the body/brain) give way to something nonphysical (subjective experience)? In order to fully understand consciousness and what it may mean for AI, the hard problem must be solved. Importantly, it can be solved. There is a concept of consciousness, it is intrinsic to the subject, and it cannot be explained in purely physical terms. This is the realist view of consciousness. As it turned out, Chalmers was all but alone in this view at the ICCS conference. Most belonged to the illusionist camp. Chalmers even quipped that the Center ought to be called the Illusionist Center for Consciousness Studies. Illusionism as a philosophy of mind is spearheaded by the English philosopher Keith Frankish. Frankish and the illusionists believe the hard problem is asking a bad question. Consciousness can be explained in purely physical, functional, and causal terms. It is simply a series of complex predictive, reactionary, and informational processes or models. There are some thinkers, such as English neuropsychologist Nick Humphrey, that have issues with the name 'illusionism' itself. But a key aspect of the theory is that the subjective experience central to realism still seems to exist. In other words, human consciousness is an illusion. Looking past these semantic disagreements, illusionism appears to be the leading view in the current philosophy of mind landscape. And yet the illusionists do not always see eye to eye. Unlike Volkov, the philosopher Katarina Marcincinova of the Kempelen Institute of Intelligent Technologies in Slovakia was fearful of the possibility of AI (functional) consciousness, opining it will be 'highly dangerous and ethically problematic.' For example, she worries about counterfeit people pretending to be human. Still, Marcincinova believes the illusion of our consciousness is essential; it allows us to create a sense of purpose for life, the world, and ourselves. Whether it is ethics or metaphysics, it is clear that the rise of artificial intelligence has pushed the work of philosophers to the forefront. According to Andy Clark, this is where philosophy ought to be. 'The generality of philosophy is key. It gives you the tools to think a little bit more clearly about any problem, and we need to think about what AI is offering.'
