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The Hindu
a day ago
- General
- The Hindu
Tracing the route of King Rajendra Chola's 1000-year-old Gangetic expedition
The gala celebrations of the millenary of Rajendra Chola - I's Gangetic expedition has turned the spotlight on how his might army traversed vast swathes of eastern and northern India in the 11th Century CE, overcoming several powerful kingdoms along the way to reach the Ganges and fetch water for the monarch's glory. Contrary to the popular belief that Rajendra Chola personally marched towards the Gangetic plains, inscriptions on the Tiruvalangadu copper plates reveal that one of the ablest generals of the king had commanded the military expedition towards the Ganges. The monarch had stayed back on the banks of the Godavari. With the help of voluminous historical works such as The Colas by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Pirkaala Sozhar Sarithiram (History of Later Cholas) by T.V. Sadasiva Pandarathar, and The Palas of Bengal by R.D. Banerji, The Hindu attempts to reconstruct the path traced by Rajendra Chola's army. These accounts reveal the Chola forces defeated kingdoms in the eastern Deccan, coastal Odisha, and eventually clashed with the Pala dynasty in Bengal. Venginadu The actual campaign began not from the Chola's capital in the South, but from the northeast of Venginadu that spread across the Godavari and Krishna rivers. Venginadu at that time was ruled by kings (Eastern Chalukyas or Chalukyas of Vengi) loyal to the Cholas. Due to Vengi's close ties with the Cholas, and since all the regions to its south were already under Rajendra Chola's empire, the expedition began north of Vengi, with the first conquest in that campaign being Chakrakottam. Chakrakottam is situated eight miles from Rajapura, on the southern bank of the Indravati River. In modern times, the place is known as Chitrakootam (Bastar region in present-day Chhattisgarh). After the fall of Chakrakottam, the Chola army marched towards the green fields of 'Masuna Desam' or 'Masuni Desam' under the control of brave rulers of the Chindaka family who identified themselves as belonging to the Naga lineage. Nilakanta Sastri, while citing a Tamil Prasasti, says the region of Maduramandalam, Namanaikkonam and Panchappalli, all fell under the 'Masuni Desam'. He said Maduramandalam was destroyed in a trice by the Chola army. Namanaikkonam with dense groves and Panchappalli, whose warriors bore cruel bows, were also conquered by Rajendra's commander. Indraratha's defeat Following that, the Chola commander marched further northeast, defeated Indraratha at Adinagara, and captured the regions of Odda (Odisha). His campaign took a westward turn with the capture of the Kosala kingdom. The region of Kosala referred to here is Dakshina (southern) Kosala, also known as Mahakosala. Having consolidated control over central-eastern India, the next target was Dandabhukti to the east, ruled by Dharmapala. Dandabhukti comprised the southern and southwestern parts of the Midnapore district in Bengal. Therefore, it likely stretched along both banks of the Subarnarekha River. Bengal From there, the Chola forces advanced towards Bengal. After defeating Dharmapala, Rajendra's army marched towards Dakshinaradha (Takkana Ladam in Tamil), ruled by Ranasura. 'Radha' (also spelt as Ratta or Lada) was the ancient name of a part of Bengal, which was bounded on the north by the Ganges. Dakshinaradha refers to the area comprising today's Hooghly and Howrah districts in Bengal, while Uttararadha (Uttara Ladam in Tamil) refers to the regions comprising Murshidabad and Birbhum districts. The Ganges With southern Bengal subdued, the commander passed eastwards, crossed the Ganges, and reached Vangala Desam (Eastern Bengal), which was then ruled by Govindachandra. Following the conquest of Eastern Bengal, Rajendra Chola's army turned westward and defeated Mahipala. The commander reached the Ganges, fetched water from the river, and brought it to his sovereign lord, Rajendra, whom he met on the banks of the Godavari during the army's retreat. Though the fetching of the Ganges water was perhaps part of the original objective, the true motive was undoubtedly an exhibition of the Chola empire's power and a demonstration of its strength to the rulers of northern India, says Nilakanta Sastri. Rajendra then returned to his kingdom with his victorious general. In great joy, the emperor accepted the sacred objects brought back. During his return journey, he visited various temples and made offerings, as mentioned in several inscriptions. One such inscription was found in Thriloki (modern-day Thirulogi near Thiruppanandal in the Thanjavur district), located about ten miles southeast of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, notes Sadasiva Pandarathar. According to the Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy for the year ending March 31, 1932, 'A fragmentary record engraved in Tiruloki makes an interesting reference to the incident of the king worshipping the sacred feet of the Lord at this village, which is only about 10 miles from Gangaikonda Cholapuram, while returning with the waters of the Ganges. (Rajendra-Choladevar Gangaikondu elundarulukinra idattu tiruvadi tolu[du]).' The ancient name of this place was given as Trailokyamahadevi-chaturvedimangalam. According to Sastri, such expeditions were undertaken by all powerful monarchs in India and were enjoined upon them by the political code of the country. The aim of the expedition was not merely to bring down the water of the Ganges to the Chola capital, but to do so after establishing a right of way across territories outside the empire by a strong show of force. This becomes clear from the statement that at the end of the expedition, Rajendra erected a 'liquid pillar of victory' (jalamayam jayastambham) in his capital with the waters of the Ganges, in the form of the tank Cholagangam. Banerji says the invasion of the Chola king did not change the political divisions of the country, but it left one permanent mark in the shape of a body of settlers, who occupied the thrones of Bengal and Mithila as the Sena and Karnata dynasties during the latter days of the Palas.
Asharq Al-Awsat
2 days ago
- General
- Asharq Al-Awsat
Ancient Site Sparks Heated Political Debate about India's Past
The Keeladi village in India's southern Tamil Nadu state has unearthed archeological finds that have sparked a political and historical debate. Amid coconut groves, a series of 15ft (4.5m) deep trenches reveal ancient artifacts buried in layers of soil - fragments of terracotta pots, and traces of long-lost brick structures, BBC reported on Monday. Experts from the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology estimate the artifacts to be 2,000 to 2,500 years old, with the oldest dating back to around 580 BCE. They say these findings challenge and reshape existing narratives about early civilization in the Indian subcontinent. With politicians, historians, and epigraphists weighing in, Keeladi has moved beyond archaeology, becoming a symbol of state pride and identity amid competing historical narratives. Yet history enthusiasts say it remains one of modern India's most compelling and accessible discoveries - offering a rare opportunity to deepen understanding of a shared past. Keeladi, a village 12km (7 miles) from Madurai on the banks of the Vaigai river, was one of 100 sites shortlisted for excavation by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishnan in 2013. He selected a 100-acre site there because of its proximity to ancient Madurai and the earlier discovery of red-and-black pottery ware by a schoolteacher in 1975. Ajay Kumar, leading the state archaeology team at Keeladi, said the key finds are elaborate brick structures and water systems - evidence of a 2,500-year-old urban settlement. 'This was a literate, urban society where people had separate spaces for habitation, burial practices and industrial work,' Kumar said, noting it's the first large, well-defined ancient urban settlement found in southern India. William Daniel, a teacher from neighboring Kerala, said the discoveries made him feel proud about his heritage. 'It gives people from the south [of India] something to feel proud about, that our civilization is just as ancient and important as the one in the north [of India],' he said. The politics surrounding Keeladi reflects a deep-rooted north-south divide - underscoring how understanding the present requires grappling with the past. India's first major civilization, the Indus Valley, emerged in the north and central regions between 3300 and 1300 BCE. After its decline, a second urban phase, the Vedic period, rose in the Gangetic plains, lasting until the 6th Century BCE. This phase saw major cities, powerful kingdoms and the rise of Vedic culture - a foundation for Hinduism. As a result, urbanization in ancient India is often viewed as a northern phenomenon, with a dominant narrative that the northern Aryans "civilized" the Dravidian south. This is especially evident in the mainstream understanding of the spread of literacy. It is believed that the Ashokan Brahmi script - found on Mauryan king Ashoka's rock edicts in northern and central India, dating back to the 3rd Century BCE - is the predecessor of most scripts in South and Southeast Asia. Epigraphists like Iravatham Mahadevan and Y Subbarayalu have long held the view that the Tamil Brahmi script - the Tamil language spoken in Tamil Nadu and written in the Brahmi script - was an offshoot of the Ashokan Brahmi script. But now, archaeologists from the Tamil Nadu state department say that the excavations at Keeladi are challenging this narrative. 'We have found graffiti in the Tamil Brahmi script dating back to the 6th Century BCE, which shows that it is older than the Ashokan Brahmi script. We believe that both scripts developed independently and, perhaps, emerged from the Indus Valley script,' Kumar said. Epigraphist S Rajavelu, former professor of marine archaeology at the Tamil University, agrees with Kumar and said other excavation sites in the state too have unearthed graffiti in the Tamil Brahmi script dating back to the 5th and 4th Century BCE. But some experts say that more research and evidence are needed to conclusively prove the antiquity of the Tamil Brahmi script.
Time of India
2 days ago
- Entertainment
- Time of India
Clay crisis set to push up idol costs ahead of Ganesha festival in Bengaluru
Bengaluru: With just a month to go for the Ganesha festival, preparations are on across the city. Artists and idol makers in various parts of Bengaluru are busy creating Ganesha idols, the festival's key attraction. However, this festive season is likely to burn a hole in the pockets of devotees, as idol prices are expected to surge 15-20% compared to previous years, thanks to a steep increase in the cost of quality clay soil and other raw materials. Clay soil — which is crucial for crafting idols and is usually sourced from lakes or riverbeds in and around Bengaluru and Ramanagara districts — has become expensive, according to artists. Many attribute this to the bounteous rainfall since 2024, which has left waterbodies filled to at least 50% of their capacity. "We normally source clay soil when the waterbodies either completely turn dry or water recedes to the bottom. But this year, because of prolonged rains, all waterbodies had considerable water and it has been difficult to lift quality clay material. Yet, wherever it is available, like in Hoskote, Bagalur, Malur, and Kannur, we've been getting it," explained Suresh, an idol maker on Tumakuru Road. by Taboola by Taboola Sponsored Links Sponsored Links Promoted Links Promoted Links You May Like Is this legal? Access all TV channels without a subscription! Techno Mag Learn More Undo To deal with the clay scarcity, some even went to the neighbouring Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh to source raw material. "We can get clay soil locally, but the quality isn't that good. It doesn't bind well and often develops cracks once the idol becomes dry. Hence, we've got a few loads of clay soil from the Gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. This clay is not only good in quality but also ensures no cracks in the idol after painting. After preparing an idol with local clay soil and paddy husk, we coat them with this clay," said Shivanand, another idol maker. You Can Also Check: Bengaluru AQI | Weather in Bengaluru | Bank Holidays in Bengaluru | Public Holidays in Bengaluru Artists at Pottery Town revealed that they have been paying between Rs 10,000 and Rs 15,000 per load of clay soil weighing 1 to 1.5 tonnes, which is Rs 4,000 to Rs 7,000 more than in previous years. "We can't make 400-500 idols alone; we have to recruit assistants, which has added to the expenses. All this will push up the price of idols by 15-20%, depending on the size and category of idol," explained Rajashekhar, president of Kumbara Karakushala Kaigarika Sahakara Sangha. Yet another artist, from Basavanagudi, pointed to the PoP (plaster of Paris) idols discreetly hitting the market despite the official ban. "While we struggle to make clay idols, these traders are discreetly pushing PoP idols despite the ban. Most of these sales happen through online platforms, and nobody will even get to know about them. The govt must crack down on such PoP storage points and traders." — Ila VC
The Hindu
2 days ago
- General
- The Hindu
India has world's highest number of slum clusters in flood-prone areas
Flooding events are a major hazard worldwide. According to a 2024 Moody's report, more than 2.3 billion people are exposed to flooding every year. In India, more than 600 million people are at risk of coastal or inland flooding. However, there is a lack of comprehensive data on vulnerable communities' flood exposure risk, especially in the Global South. A new study has attempted to bridge exactly this gap by analysing satellite images of informal settlements or slum dwellings in 129 low- and middle-income countries and comparing them with maps of 343 well-documented large-scale floods. The study found that India has the world's largest number of slum dwellers living in vulnerable settlements in floodplains — over 158 million, more than the population of Russia — with most of them concentrated in the naturally flood-prone delta of the Ganga river. The largest concentrations and largest numbers of such people are in South Asian countries; northern India leads in absolute numbers, followed by Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. Other notable 'hotspots' include Rwanda and its neighborhood, northern Morocco, and the coastal regions of Rio de Janeiro. Overall, in the Global South, 33% of informal settlements, making up around 445 million people living in 908,077 households within 67,568 clusters, lie in areas that have already been exposed to floods. Countries like India and Brazil also have a disproportionately high number of floodplain settlements despite also having suffered many large floods. The study, published in Nature Cities in July, highlights the lack of risk management strategies that prioritise vulnerable communities, including those that have already experienced floods, beyond population-level approaches. Risk and settlement The researchers classified human settlements as rural, suburban, and urban, and found that Latin America and the Caribbean had high rates of urbanisation (80%), and thus more than 60% of settlements were in urban areas. In contrast, Sub-Saharan Africa had the lowest rates of urbanisation and nearly 63% of informal settlements were rural. In Sierra Leone and Liberia, informal settlements hosted most of the population. In India, at the time of the study, 40% of slum dwellers resided in urban and suburban areas. People settle in, or are forced to settle in, floodplains due to a combination of factors including access to jobs, social vulnerability, and financial constraints. In India and Bangladesh, the low lying Gangetic delta and the large national population contribute to the numbers. The study also highlighted inequities in access to resources and thus local responses to flooding. These vulnerable residents also suffer the loss of jobs and access to services among the indirect consequences of floods. Exposed populations' vulnerability was found to depend on socioeconomic factors like education level and institutional factors like flood insurance. The authors of the study wrote that both slum-dwellers and non-slum residents live in floodplains around the world, but for different reasons. In wealthier regions like Europe, subsidised flood insurance premiums in high risk areas promotes the desirability of floodplain areas like beachfronts and water views. Infrastructure like levies also exist to protect people and houses. However, in the Global South, flood zones offer cheaper land and housing, pushing low income households into more vulnerable areas. Data reveal that patterns of informal settlements also have a distinct bias towards settling in floodplains, with slum dwellers being 32% more likely to settle in a floodplain than outside due to lower costs, as evidenced in cities like Mumbai and Jakarta. In fact, the higher the risk of flood, the higher the chance of people settling there. 'In cities like Bengaluru, there definitely is a very strong correlation between informal settlements and their vulnerability to flood,' Aysha Jennath, climate mobility researcher and post-doctoral fellow at the Indian Institute for Human Settlements, Bengaluru, said. 'Flood prone localities are not preferred by large builders for gated communities or IT parks, so those areas are available for migrant workers and informal settlements as they are cheaper.' Informal settlements in such urban areas are typically tin-sheet, tent or tarp housing, with rent paid to owners through land contractors ('thekedars'). SDG deadline looms The researchers specified the need to act on flood vulnerability risk for poorer populations as the 2030 deadline for the United Nations' Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) nears. The goals number 17, including eliminating poverty and hunger, availing clean water and sanitation, and taking climate action. They apply to all the UN's member countries and focus on vulnerable communities. The study also articulated the importance of taking a human-centric approach (instead of location-focused) to improve inadequate infrastructure. Data show large concentrations of settlements in smaller areas, indicating gaps in housing, infrastructure, and basic services. Often, even gated communities gentrify flood-prone areas, pushing vulnerable communities to areas of higher risk exacerbated by failing infrastructure and lack of drainage, Jennath said. 'Real estate plays a huge role in how these informal settlements come up.' Finally, the researchers also discussed the need for the government to collaborate with communities instead of banking only on traditional disaster preparedness. Skill improvement in areas like sanitation, waste management, and installing drainage systems could enhance the resilience to not just floods but also other risks like infectious disease, while providing jobs. 'These data-driven insights highlight the disproportionate flood exposure faced by slum dwellers in the Global South and underscore the need for just and equitable flood adaptation management,' they wrote. The findings are also a proof-of-concept for using machine learning, which can process large quantities of data, to analyse satellite imagery and extract nuanced insights, like socioeconomic data embedded in population densities. As a follow-up, the authors have said they plan to study timewise processes such as slum expansion, climate change, and human migration to effectively predict future flood risk. Sandhya Ramesh is a freelance science journalist.
Indian Express
4 days ago
- Climate
- Indian Express
Bengal to get more rain; South Bengal districts on Yellow alert
Written by Anisha Ghosh The India Meteorological Department (IMD) issued a Yellow alert (Be Aware) for most South Bengal districts on Sunday afternoon. The weather bureau predicted light to moderate rainfall with possible thunderstorms in South Bengal districts like Howrah, Hooghly, North and South 24 Parganas, East and West Midnapore, Jhargram, Bankura, Purulia, East and West Bardhaman, Birbhum, Murshidabad, Nadia, and Kolkata. State capital Kolkata experienced overcast conditions on Sunday, but there was only 0.4 mm of rainfall in the last 24 hours. The city recorded a maximum temperature of 30.4 degree Celsius and a minimum of 26.2 degree Celsius on Sunday. Humidity levels were on the higher side, ranging from 83 per cent to 100 per cent. Meanwhile, the IMD has put North Bengal districts like Jalpaiguri and Alipurduar under an Orange alert (Be Prepared), expecting heavy to very heavy rainfall (7-20 cm) on Sunday. Darjeeling, Cooch Behar, and Kalimpong are under a Yellow alert and are likely to witness light to moderate rainfall. Warnings have been issued for possible lightning and local flooding in low-lying areas across the region. In its bulletin, the IMD also stated that a 'trough runs from cyclonic circulation associated with the well-marked low-pressure area over northwest Madhya Pradesh and neighbourhood to northeast Bangladesh across northeast Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and north Gangetic West Bengal between 0.9 to 5.8 km above mean sea level.' Under the influence of this strong monsoon flow, widespread light to moderate rainfall is very likely to continue over West Bengal, with heavy rainfall activity expected at one or two places in some districts over the next few days. (Anisha Ghosh is an intern with The Indian Express)
