Latest news with #ancient
Fast Company
18 hours ago
- Fast Company
Can AI think? Here's what Greek philosophers might say
In my writing and rhetoric courses, students have plenty of opinions on whether AI is intelligent: how well it can assess, analyze, evaluate, and communicate information. When I ask whether artificial intelligence can 'think,' however, I often look upon a sea of blank faces. What is 'thinking,' and how is it the same or different from 'intelligence'? We might treat the two as more or less synonymous, but philosophers have marked nuances for millennia. Greek philosophers may not have known about 21st-century technology, but their ideas about intellect and thinking can help us understand what's at stake with AI today. The divided line Although the English words 'intellect' and 'thinking' do not have direct counterparts in ancient Greek, looking at ancient texts offers useful comparisons. In Republic, for example, Plato uses the analogy of a 'divided line' separating higher and lower forms of understanding. Plato, who taught in the fourth century BCE, argued that each person has an intuitive capacity to recognize the truth. He called this the highest form of understanding: 'noesis.' Noesis enables apprehension beyond reason, belief, or sensory perception. It's one form of 'knowing' something—but in Plato's view, it's also a property of the soul. Lower down, but still above his 'dividing line,' is 'dianoia,' or reason, which relies on argumentation. Below the line, his lower forms of understanding are 'pistis,' or belief, and 'eikasia,' or imagination. Pistis is belief influenced by experience and sensory perception: input that someone can critically examine and reason about. Plato defines eikasia, meanwhile, as baseless opinion rooted in false perception. In Plato's hierarchy of mental capacities, direct, intuitive understanding is at the top, and moment-to-moment physical input toward the bottom. The top of the hierarchy leads to true and absolute knowledge, while the bottom lends itself to false impressions and beliefs. But intuition, according to Plato, is part of the soul, and embodied in human form. Perceiving reality transcends the body—but still needs one. So, while Plato does not differentiate between 'intelligence' and 'thinking,' I would argue that his distinctions can help us think about AI. Without being embodied, AI may not 'think' or 'understand' the way humans do. Eikasia—the lowest form of comprehension, based on false perceptions—may be similar to AI's frequent 'hallucinations,' when it makes up information that seems plausible but is actually inaccurate. Embodied thinking Aristotle, Plato's student, sheds more light on intelligence and thinking. In On the Soul, Aristotle distinguishes 'active' from 'passive' intellect. Active intellect, which he called 'nous,' is immaterial. It makes meaning from experience, but transcends bodily perception. Passive intellect is bodily, receiving sensory impressions without reasoning. We could say that these active and passive processes, put together, constitute 'thinking.' Today, the word 'intelligence' holds a logical quality that AI's calculations may conceivably replicate. Aristotle, however, like Plato, suggests that to 'think' requires an embodied form and goes beyond reason alone. Aristotle's views on rhetoric also show that deliberation and judgment require a body, feeling, and experience. We might think of rhetoric as persuasion, but it is actually more about observation: observing and evaluating how evidence, emotion, and character shape people's thinking and decisions. Facts matter, but emotions and people move us—and it seems questionable whether AI utilizes rhetoric in this way. Finally, Aristotle's concept of 'phronesis' sheds further light on AI's capacity to think. In Nicomachean Ethics, he defines phronesis as 'practical wisdom' or 'prudence.' Phronesis involves lived experience that determines not only right thought, but also how to apply those thoughts to 'good ends,' or virtuous actions. AI may analyze large datasets to reach its conclusions, but 'phronesis' goes beyond information to consult wisdom and moral insight. 'Thinking' robots? Today, AI takes on many physical forms, from autonomous vehicles and humanoid robots to healthcare robots and drones. If intelligence requires embodiment, as Plato and Aristotle believed, it might seem as if AI is coming closer than ever to human thinking. AI does take on many forms, but they're still not bodies; they run on code, algorithms, and datasets. Intuitive understanding, emotion, integrity, and practical wisdom seem to require an embodied, perishable form that is moved by experience. Perhaps we should ask AI itself—so I did. When I prompted ChatGPT with the simple question, 'Can you think?,' it responded: 'I can process information, analyze patterns, and generate responses based on data. So, in some ways, it might 'seem' like I'm thinking. But it's not thinking like a human does. I don't have consciousness, emotions, intentions, or awareness. Everything I 'do' is based on patterns learned from huge amounts of text and a set of rules and probabilities. I can 'simulate' certain aspects of thinking, but I don't truly think or understand in the human sense.'
Times
2 days ago
- Science
- Times
Here's how the world will end — a risk expert's guide
This is not a book for the anxious. It tells of the collapse of empires and the potential for the implosion of human society. In his marshalling of existential risks the author Luke Kemp deploys apocalyptic prose. 'It is deceptively easy to think about killer drones, AI and nuclear weapons as being separate, isolatable threats,' he writes before delivering the kicker: 'They are not.' Instead Kemp talks about a 'tree of doom' in which hierarchy, inequality and war are central. This weighty tome aims to emulate the impact of Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind by Yuval Noah Harari and similar doorstoppers. But that kind of book requires an author to possess exceptional gifts. I find myself wondering how anyone can hold forth authoritatively on such a broad range of topics such as palaeolithic lifestyles, inequality in ancient Rome and the spread of microplastics. The answer, I think, is that you are either a polymath like Felipe Fernández-Armesto, whose book Millennium: A History of the Last Thousand Years succeeded in telling a broad swathe of history, or, like Harari, you are such a great explainer of complex phenomena that people don't look too closely at the details. Kemp aspires to greater things than his predecessors: an even broader view of how humanity developed and how it soon might end. However, he concedes that the first section, about the emergence of hierarchical societies, contains a lot of educated guesswork. 'We don't know when exactly empires and states came to capture most of the human population … at best, states dominate less than 0.5 per cent of the human timeline.' In the middle section, about the rise and fall of empires such as imperial China, Kemp is on less shaky ground. There's some great detail here, for example: 'Ten to 25 per cent of men above the age of 17 were deployed for combat in the Roman republic. At its peak Rome had an army of about 400,000 to 500,000 men.' But sic transit gloria mundi — military prowess was not enough to preserve this or other civilisations. Kemp says: 'In every case prior to the collapse [of an empire] there is a slow growth in inequality, oligarchy, corruption and factionalism between elites over the surplus of lootable resources.' All of this sets the scene for the troubling present, our future dystopia and possible extinction, which forms the final section. Kemp works with the University of Cambridge's Centre for the Study of Existential Risk so this is his bread and butter. He allows for nuance — for different interpretations of the risks arising from climate change, biotech, nuclear weapons and AI — but at the heart of it he believes there is a chance of 'a single gargantuan crash' due to our 'hyperconnected, hyperhomogenous and hyperaccelerated systems'. • At this point you can almost imagine Kemp's editor urging him: 'For God's sake, give the reader something to live for!' And he tries. 'Most of the challenges we face are entirely solvable,' he writes. His suggested remedies include banning nuclear weapons, addressing climate change, creating more equal societies and limiting AI. In a section bravely titled Don't Be a Dick! he argues that we can all make a positive difference by eating less meat, turning down certain jobs and shunning particular types of politics. Yet a few chapters earlier Kemp argues that the idea 'we are all to blame … is a manufactured distraction. The reality is that a mere handful of giant corporations, countries and militaries are responsible for the great majority of catastrophic risk.' So are we individually empowered or not? Here's where Kemp's thesis begins to fray badly because not all of us live in societies where change can be brought about democratically. If you ask me which country is stripping the world's resources at an unprecedented rate, has the biggest state funding of AI, is most rapidly increasing its stock of nuclear weapons and is home to numerous laboratories containing lethal pathogens, the answer is the same: China. But modern China is hardly mentioned in this book. Instead Kemp's focus is almost exclusively on the US. I don't doubt there are reasons to watch Google or the Pentagon closely, but with some shareholder and democratic accountability, I fancy we have a better chance of finding out what's going on in these places than we do in some Chinese AI project or biolab. This lack of interest in the sources of risk outside the western world extends to countries like India and Brazil. A book covering this great swathe of time, societal models, scientific progress and risk requires an Olympian detachment, the ultimate long view. But instead what the reader ultimately gets are the comforting 'progressive' orthodoxies of the 21st-century western academic world.
Yahoo
4 days ago
- Health
- Yahoo
Sourdough vs. Whole-Wheat Bread: A Gastroenterologist Shares Which Is Better for Your Gut
Reviewed by Dietitian Katey Davidson, RD, CPTKey Points Sourdough bread and whole-wheat bread are both nutritious options, depending on your health goals. Choose breads that are minimally processed and low in added sugars. Pair these breads with healthy fats and other wholesome ingredients to support better is arguably one of humanity's greatest culinary accomplishments. But picking the 'best' bread for your health—particularly for your gut—can be tricky territory. Between sourdough's tangy allure and whole-wheat bread's fiber-heavy reputation, the bread aisle can feel like a battleground of choices. We spoke with Will Bulsiewicz, M.D., MSCI, a gastroenterologist, to help us break down the doughy details for you. This article dives into the gut-health benefits of sourdough and whole-wheat bread, backed by expert insight, so you can make an informed (and tasty) choice for your next slice. Benefits of Sourdough Bread for Gut Health Sourdough bread isn't just a trendy item on brunch menus. It offers some real, scientifically backed perks for your gut. It's one of the oldest types of bread, dating back to around 2000 B.C., when the ancient Egyptians first used it. It was likely discovered by accident when wild yeast landed on dough left out in the open, causing it to ferment and develop sourdough's signature flavor and texture. At the time, people didn't realize that sourdough had health benefits, too. Here's why your microbiome might give it two thumbs-up. It's a Source of Friendly Bacteria The key to sourdough is the starter—a mix of flour and water where natural yeast and beneficial bacteria grow. Some of the bacteria in sourdough, called lactic acid bacteria, are considered probiotics and may support gut health. 'Traditional sourdough can be great for gut health, thanks to the fermentation process,' explains Bulsiewicz. 'The natural bacteria and yeasts transform the bread—making it easier to digest with a lower glycemic index, more bioavailable nutrients, less pesticides and antinutrients and a punch of acidic flavor. The end product is both delicious and nutritious.' May Be Easier to Digest Than Other Breads If bread normally leaves you bloated, sourdough might be your gut-friendly hero. Its fermentation process breaks down gluten and other hard-to-digest compounds, making it gentler on the stomach. In fact, some gastroenterologists recommend sourdough as a better alternative for individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or mild gluten sensitivity—though those with celiac disease should avoid it. One reason sourdough is easier to digest is that it contains lower levels of fructans, a type of carbohydrate that can cause problems for people with IBS. Compared to regular wheat breads, sourdough's fermentation process significantly reduces these compounds, helping to ease digestion. Bulsiewicz cautions that not all sourdough breads are created equal. 'Many store-bought versions skip the fermentation process altogether and are loaded with the same high-risk ingredients as other commercial breads. If you've got the time, try making sourdough at home. It's easier than it looks, and the best part is, you're in full control of the ingredients.' Alternatively, visit a local bakery that focuses on fresh, high-quality ingredients. Packed with Nutrients Your Gut Loves Fermentation doesn't just make sourdough tastier—it makes it more nutritious, too. Key minerals like zinc, magnesium and iron become more bioavailable, meaning your body can absorb them more easily. These nutrients are important for a well-functioning gut, as they support various aspects of gut health. For example, magnesium may be linked to better gut microbial diversity while reducing potentially harmful bacteria like Enterobacteriaceae. Benefits of Whole-Wheat Bread for Gut Health Whole-wheat bread might not have the same trendy charm as sourdough, but it's a nutritional powerhouse in its own right. Here's why it's still a strong contender for your gut health. A Source of Fiber to Fuel Your Gut Microbiome Fiber is like a buffet for the healthy bacteria in your gut. Whole-wheat bread is a natural source of insoluble fiber, which helps maintain regular digestion and feed beneficial gut bacteria. Many gastroenterologists stress the importance of fiber as a foundational element for gut health, and whole-wheat bread delivers it in spades. 'Whole-wheat bread can be beneficial for your gut, especially when it's made with whole grains that are high in fiber. Fiber is fuel for your gut microbes, helping them produce short-chain fatty acids that reduce inflammation and support overall health,' explains Bulsiewicz. Helps Maintain Regular Digestion Because it's packed with fiber, whole-wheat bread supports a more regular digestive routine. If you're prone to constipation or irregular bowel movements, the fiber in whole-wheat bread acts like a gentle broom, sweeping waste through your digestive tract. It's good news for anyone looking to reduce digestive discomfort. A Source of Important Nutrients Whole-wheat bread doesn't just benefit your gut—it supports your overall health, too. Fortified varieties contain B vitamins, which play key roles in energy production and metabolic function, along with minerals like iron. While these nutrients don't all directly impact gut health, they are important for overall health. Low in Added Sugars True whole-wheat bread is minimally processed and often doesn't include the added sugars and artificial ingredients that may negatively impact gut health. When purchasing whole-wheat bread, look for options labeled '100% whole grain' or '100% whole wheat,' as some breads marketed as 'wheat' are mostly refined flour in disguise. 'Not all whole-wheat breads are created equal,' Bulsiewicz warns. 'A lot of what you'll find on supermarket shelves is actually highly processed and loaded with additives and hidden sugars that can do more harm than good.' Limiting added sugars is linked to many health benefits, while consuming excess added sugars may negatively impact heart health. The Final Verdict So, which is better for your gut health: sourdough bread or whole-wheat bread? The truth is, it depends on your individual needs and preferences. Both have distinct gut-friendly benefits. Bulsiewicz shares his personal preference: 'I'll take a properly fermented sourdough from good, organic flour every day of the week. That's my top choice among breads. But a well-made, minimally processed whole-wheat bread that's high in fiber can also be a great option. What matters most isn't whether it says 'sourdough' or 'whole wheat' on the label—it's what's actually in the bread.' For ultimate gut health, you don't have to choose one over the other. Consider alternating between the two or even combining them into one diet by incorporating sourdough for breakfast and a hearty whole-wheat sandwich for lunch. Variety keeps your gut microbiome diverse and happy. Additional Tips for Gut Health Bread is just one piece of the puzzle when it comes to a healthy gut. 'Bread doesn't need to be demonized,' reminds Bulsiewicz. 'It can be part of a balanced, gut-friendly diet. It's not about being perfect, it's about making better choices. No matter what kind of bread you prefer, I always recommend looking for ones with simple ingredients, low added sugar and a good amount of fiber.' He also offers a practical tip: 'Pair your bread with a healthy fat like avocado. It's delicious and it helps smooth out your blood sugar response.' Here are some other tips to support your gut health: Eat More Fermented Foods: Include items like yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, kimchi and miso in your diet to add even more probiotics. Stay Hydrated: Water helps move fiber through your digestive tract effectively. Exercise Regularly: Physical activity supports healthy digestion. Our Expert Take When it comes to gut health, both sourdough and whole-wheat bread have earned their rightful place at the table. Sourdough's fermentation process gives it unique digestibility and nutrient boosts, while whole-wheat bread's fiber content is great for microbiome support. The best choice depends on your personal gut-health goals and dietary needs. But remember, the ultimate key to gut health lies in a balanced diet, regular exercise and keeping your stress levels in check. Now, go ahead and toast (literally) to your health with your bread of choice! Read the original article on EATINGWELL
CBC
5 days ago
- General
- CBC
#TheMoment an ancient spearhead was unearthed on a family farm
Laura Vellenga tells The National about the moment her family discovered pieces of a rare ancient spearhead on their farm that could date back to 10,000 BC.
CBC
6 days ago
- Science
- CBC
Family unearths ancient spearhead at their Paris, Ont., farm in 'freak' discovery
The two pieces were buried under the earth for possibly more than 12,000 years. This summer, they were accidentally unearthed on a Paris, Ont., dairy farm. For Laura Vellenga, finding what are believed to be two parts of an ancient spearhead is a once-in-a-lifetime discovery. "I knew right away this was something special," she said, carefully admiring two pieces of light grey flint in her cupped hands. "You can tell that it was made by a person and chiselled by a person.... We found it here in the cornfield, at the back of the farm, about kilometre away from the house. It was just a freak chance that we found this here." The two pieces she found connect like a puzzle to create a roughly seven-centimetre-long piece. Vellenga wonders if a third piece remains hidden on their farm because the spearhead is missing its tip. Vellenga found the pieces while working on the farm with her husband, Mike Vellenga. He was driving their ATV through the cornfield when he heard it bump against something hard in the soil. "My husband looked down here and he sat kind of half buried in the dirt; he thought [it] was like a piece of plastic." After picking the two pieces up and tapping them against their ATV, the Vellengas immediately knew they were no ordinary rocks. They decided to take the pieces home, carefully, and began looking for an archeology expert to tell them more about their unique find. "A human being from 13,000 years ago, before the pyramids, before any of the history that we know about of civilization held this in their hand and made it, and used it and lived here," Laura said. "It's exciting to think how different the world was back then during the [last] ice age ... then it got lost and now we're holding it 13,000 years later." 'Scarce as hen's teeth' To help learn more about what the family believes is a rare find, the family turned to Christopher Ellis, a leading expert in Paleo and Archaic archeology from the Great Lakes area. Ellis, a professor emeritus at London's Western University, has spent his 50-year career unearthing and identifying spearheads like the one discovered by the Vellengas. He has not had a chance to hold the artifact, but has studied it using detailed pictures. He said the kind of point the family found "is a style that we know is characteristic of the oldest documented people in Ontario," and noted that with the modern calendar, it would date it to 10,000 BC. Ellis said he was shocked to see that the family had accidentally stumbled upon a fluted point spear tip. "Fluted points ... are scarce as hen's teeth. They are like a needle in a haystack," Ellis told CBC News. "I only know of maybe seven points from all the Brant County that have been reported over the years. There's not very many of them and they're distinctive." Material from present-day Ohio Ellis said the spearhead is made of chert flint rock — a material not naturally found in the area where the farm is located. "It's from an Ohio source, from south central Ohio, which would be about 300 or 400 kilometres away," he said, adding the spearhead may have been carried over to Ontario by a hunter-gatherer looking for food, family and love. "Part of the reason [for travelling] is that people were living in very small groups. The whole population of southern Ontario might have been 150 people and in small groups, so they maintain contact over wide areas because... they're exchanging tools and raw materials with people in Michigan, and Ohio, and New York state and so on over large areas." Ellis described the chert flint rock as easy to flake and glass-like. He said it would have taken considerable skill and patience to shape the spearhead into a perfect point. "They were almost an art form. It was a lot more to them than just tools. They went out of their way to get certain raw materials for them, the best quality. They wanted them to look very nice."
